Xi Physics Chapter 1 To13 Updated

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XI – PHYSICS
Short Question:
1) Law of conversation of:
a. Angular Momentum
b. Linear Momentum
c. Energy
a. LAW OF CONVERSATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM
STATEMENT:
"When the external torque acting on a body is zero, the total angular momentum of the body remains
constant."
PROOF:
Consider a particle of mass 'm' and linear momentum P. According to Newton's 2 nd law of Motion, the
rate of change of linear momentum is equal to the net force.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗=
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Taking vector product of both the sides with r, we get
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗x ⃗= ⃗x ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ = ⃗ x ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ … (i) [⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗]
The angular momentum is given as:
⃗= ⃗ x ⃗
Differentiating the above equation w.r.t to time.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ x ⃗
=
⃗ ⃗
= ⃗ ⃗
⃗
⃗
⃗
=⃗ ⃗ ⃗ [⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ]
⃗
⃗
From eq (i) ⃗= ⃗ x
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
= m ( ⃗ x ⃗) + ⃗
‫ارگآپاچےتہںیہہکہرالکساورہرٹکیجبسےکٹسیٹاورسیگرپیپزآوکپدےتھکرںیہوپرےاسلوتاانپربمنںیمہواسٹ پ‬
.‫ایرپویسرکوادںی‬
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‫الکسس۔‬
b. LAW OF CONVERSATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM
STATEMENT:
“The total momentum of an isolated system if bodies always remain constant.”
ISOLATED SYSTEM
DEFINITION:
A system in which bodies exert force on one another, but the system is not acted upon by external
forces, is called ISOLATED SYSTÉM.
EXAMPLE:
"Molecules of a gas contained in a vessel form a good example of an isolated system.
MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION:
m1v1 + m2 v2 = m1u1 + m2u2
MATHEMATICAL DERIVATION:
We consider an isolated system of two bodies A and B of masses m1 and m2, moving with initial
velocities u1 and u2, such that u1 > u2 .The two bodies collide, after which their velocities become v1
and v2.
Now,
Total Initial Momentum = m1u1 + m2u2
Total Final Momentum = m1v1 + m2 v2
When the bodies collide, they come into contact for a time interval ∆t. During this interval, A exerts
a force F1on 2 on B, while B exerts a force F2 on 1 on A. As we know that "the force acting on a body is
equal to the rate of change of linear momentum of that body", we express the two forces as: Force
on m2 changes momentum m2 :
F1on 2 = F1on 2 =
F1on 2 = F1on 2 =
UNITS:
SI UNIT:
The SI unit of torque is J-s (joule-second).
l = mvrsinθ
Unit of l =
=
= N m s = (N.m) s
= J.s
DIMENSIONS:
[ ]=(M)(LT-1)(L)
[ ]=ML2T-1
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c. LAW OF CONVERSATION OF ENERGY
STATEMENT
Energy can neither be created not be destroy but is can be transformed from one from to other and
during that total energy remains constant.
Explanation
It over daily life sometimes an energy suddenly appears but any other energy is lost. Similarly,
sometimes an energy disappears but any other energy take place. Therefore, in the universe energy
remain conserved
In the universe, matter can be converted into energy like in the nuclear fission and fusion reaction. Such
energy can be measured by the farmhouse equation of Einstein.
E=mc2
Where
m = mass of body
c = speed of light 3x108m/s
Mathematically Expression (Verification)
Suppose a ball of mass “m” is placed at point “p” which is at height “h” from surface at earth. Here P.E
of the ball is “mgh” and K.E is “Zero”, because the ball is at rest
At Point P
P.E = mgh
K.E = 0
Total Energy = E= P.E + K.E
= E = mgh + 0
= E = mgh
Now the ball is dropped and it goes down with velocity “v”. we check the ball it passes from through at
point
At Point “
P.E = mgh (h-x)
K.E ½ mv2 - - - - (a)
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Using 3rd equation of motion from P to
2as = vf2-vi2
2gx = vi2 – O2
2gx = v2
Put in E (a)
K.E 1/2 m (2gx)
K.E = mgx
Therefore
Total Energy = E = K.E + P.E
= E = mgx = mg(h-x)
= E mgx = mgh – mgx
E = mgh
The ball continues to go down and we again check the ball at point “M”. Just after before hitting the
ground
At point “M”
P.E = 0
K.E = ½ mv2 - - - (b)
Using 3rd E from Point “P” to “M”
2aS = Vf2 – Vi2
2gh = V2 – O2
2gh = V2
Put in Eq (b)
K.E = m (2gh)
K.E – mgh
Total Energy = E = PE + KE
= E = 0 mgh
= E = mhg
CONCLUSION
According to given example during downward motion of the ball its PE is converted into KE but at all the
points total energy remains same. Hence the law is mathematically verified
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2) Work Energy Theorem.

WORK ENERGY THEOREM:
Statement
The work done in moving of body between two points of the fields is equal to the change in Kinetic
Energy between two points of the field
Proof :
Case 1:
When force in Constant
Suppose that a body of mass “m” is moving from point P 1 to P2 under the influencing of a constant force
F and covers a displacement S the work done from P1 to P2 will be
W = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ - - - Eq (1)
It ⃗⃗⃗⃗ Be the acceleration of the body ⃗⃗⃗⃗and ⃗⃗⃗⃗ are the velocity of body at P1 and P2. The body covers a
displacement ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ in time t when
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = - - - Eq (2)
The average velocity of t
⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
By using Eq of motion
⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)t
By using Newton’s 2nd Motion law of Motion
⃗ = ⃗
Putting ⃗ from Eq (2)
⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ) - - - Eq (iv)
Put ⃗ & ⃗ in Eq (1)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
w= ) )t
w= ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
w=
w = k2 – k1 - - - -Eq (v)
w = K.E Proved
3) First equation of motion.
‫ااکسوجابرگوپہپآےئاگ‬
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4) Prove that:
a. P = F.V
b. A.B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz
c. V = rw or a = rα
a. P = F.V
POWER
DEFINITION
“The rate of doing work on a body is called Power”
Or
“The rate of expenditure of energy is called Power”
PHYSICAL NATURE
Since both work and time are scalar, power is a Scalar Quantity
NOTATION: It is denoted by P
Mathematically Expression
Power is expressed as
Power =
Power =
We know that W = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗
Thus, P= = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ( )
⃗
= P = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ [⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ]
b. A.B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz
c. Prove a = rα
Mathematical expression
We know that
V = rw
Dividing both sides by “t”
=
=r x - - - Eq (1)
We know that
= at
=α
Put in Eq (1)
at = r x α
at = rα
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d. V = rw
Suppose a body is rotating in a circle of radius “r” from point “A” to “B”. It cover an arc length “S” and
produce angular displacement “ ”. The tangential velocity of the body at point “A” in “V”.
We know that
= s/r
Dividing both sides by “t”
=
r x = - - - Eq (1)
we know that
=w& =v
Put in Eq (2)
r x w =v
rw = v OR
v = rw
this is mathematically Exp of t angular velocity. It explain that when a body rotates then “w” remain
same at all the points but tangential vel. doesn’t remain same. It increase as we go way from the axis of
rotation and on the axis rotation “v” is zero
Tangential Acceleration:
Def:
When a body rotate in a circle then at every point in circular path it has some linear acceleration
directed towards, the tangent. This is called Tangential Acceleration and it is denoted by a or ac.
5) Relation between torque, moment of inertia and angular acceleration.
6) Relation between angle of friction and angle of repose.
Angle of repose is defined as the minimum angle made by and
inclined plane with the horizontal such that an object placed on the
inclined surface just begins to slide.
Let us consider a body of mass “m” resting on a plane.
Also consider when the plane make “ angle with the horizontal,
the body just begin to move
Let ‘R’ be normal reaction of the body and ‘f’ be the frictional force
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Here
mgsin = f - - - Eq(1)
mgcos = R - - - Eq(2)
dividing equation 1 by 2
tan
Or, Tan μ where μ is the coefficient of friction
Or Tan Tan (Tan = μ)
Where is the angle of friction
Angle of response is equal to angle of friction
7) Area of parallelogram.
AREA OF PARALLELOGRAM AND AREA OF TRIANGLE USING CROSS PRODUCT
[PHYSICAL MEANING OF CROSS PRODUCT]
Area of parallelogram
By definition area of parallelogram is given by:
Area of parallelogram = (Base) (Altitude)
If vector ⃗ and ⃗⃗ represent the adjacent sides of a parallelogram such that ⃗ is along the base ⃗⃗
makes angle with ⃗ then the height of the parallelogram will be Sin , Thus
Area of Parallelogram = (A)(Bsin )
= ABsin
= Area of Parallelogram = | | [| | = ABsin
In the above parallelogram | |gives the magnitude of area of parallelogram, whereas
[| | gives vector area which is directed (According to right hand rule) along the outward drawn
normal to the plane of the parallelogram.
Long Question:
1. Rectangular component method.
Vector
Rectangular Component Method
Consider two vectors A and B are making angle 1 and 2 with positive x-axis as shown in figure.
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Now add these two vectors by head and tail rule and resolve each vector into its rectangular
components. To find magnitude of resultant vector by using these rectangular components is called
rectangular component method, as shown in the figure below
To make convenient calculation we divide following in five step

Step # 1 Components of vector
Very first we divide vectors ⃗ and ⃗⃗ into its rectangular components
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗cos 1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗cos 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗Sin 1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗Sin 2
Step # 2 X Components
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
In Magnitude Form
Rx = Ax + Bx
Rx = ACos 1+ BCos 2
Step # 3 Y Components
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
In Magnitude Form
Ry = Ay + By
Ry = ASin 1+ BSin 2
Step # 4 Magnitude of Resultant Vector
In OPR
: H2 = B2 + P2
R2 = Rx2 + Ry2
R= √
R=√
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Step # 5 Direction
Using function of tangent
Tan
Tan
Tan-1 ( )
2. Drive second or third equation of motion by graphical method.
3. Define projectile motion and discuss parameters of projectile.
Projectile Motion:
Two dimensional motion under the influence of gravity is called Projectile Motion.
Example: Small flight of bird.
Motion of football after kick.
Note: Motion of aero plan is not projectile motion.
1) Parameters of Projectile:
Time to reach at Maximum:
The time during projectile motion in which vertical component of velocity becomes zero. At this time
projectile is on H max so it is known as Time to reach at maximum height
Mathematically form
Using 1st equation of motion
Vf = vi + at
Vy = Voy – gt
O – VoSin θ – gt
gt = VoSin θ
t=
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2) Total Time to Flight
Definition:
The time duration in Projectile motion by a projectile from launching point to target point to
time is called Total Time of Flight and it is Density by “I”.
Mathematically Form
In the absence of air friction total time of flight is twice of time to reach at maximum he get
2 = 2t VoSin θ / g
3) Maximum Height of Projectile
The height of which vertical component of velocity becomes zero is called maximum height or
maximum vertical distance attend by the projectile
Mathematically Form
Using 3rd Equation of Motion
2as = vf2-vi2
S=
H-max =
H-max =
H-max =
4) Range of Projectile
Definition
The horizontal distance in Projectile Motion by a Projectile from Launching point to target point
is called Range of Projectile
Mathematically Form
Using fundamental Eq of Motion
S =Vt
R = Vxt
R = Voxt - - - Eq(1)
Vox = VCos θ & T=
Put in Eq (1)
R = VoCos θ (
OR
R=
2Sin Cos = Sin2
5) Maximum Range of Projectile
We know that
R= - - -Eq(1)
We know that the maximum value of function of Sin
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Sin2 = 1
2 = Sin-1 (1)
2 = 90o
= 90O/2
= 45O
Put in Eq (1)
R=
Rmax = Sin90o =1
R=
4. Discuss cumulative property of Dot and Cross product.
Commutative law of dot product:
"Dot Product of vectors obeys Commutative Law, i.e. two vectors can be dot-multiplied in any order."
⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗
PROOF: (PROVE THAT ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ )
We consider two vectors ⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗, such that is the angle between them.
The dot product of two vectors is physically equal to the product of 'magnitude of 1st vector'
and 'projection of 2nd vector onto 1st'.
⃗ ⃗⃗ = (Magnitude of A) (Projection of ⃗⃗ onto ⃗)
⃗ ⃗⃗ = (A)(BA)
But the 'projection of ⃗⃗ onto ⃗ is equal to B cos θ.
⃗ ⃗⃗ = (A)(Bcosθ)
⃗ ⃗⃗ = AB cosθ
Similarly,
⃗⃗ ⃗ = (Magnitude of ⃗⃗) (Projection of ⃗ onto ⃗⃗)
⃗⃗ ⃗ = (B)(AB)
But the 'projection of ⃗ onto ⃗⃗' is equal to A cosθ.
⃗⃗ ⃗ = (B) (Acosθ)
⃗⃗ ⃗=AB cos θ
Comparing eq (i) and eq (ii), we get:
⃗ ⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗ ⃗
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Hence, "Dot Product obeys Commutative Law."
DISTRIBUTIVE LAW OF DOT PRODUCT:

If sum of two vectors is dot-multiplied by a vector, then according to Distributive Law:
⃗ ⃗⃗ + ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗
CROSS PRODUCT DOES NOT OBEY COMMUTATIVE LAW:
"Cross Product of vectors does not obey Commutative Law, i.e. two vectors vectors cross-multiplied in
different orders have different products."
⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ or ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗
PROOF: (PROVE THAT ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ or ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗)
We consider two vectors ⃗ and ⃗⃗. such that θ is the angle between them. Applying right-hand rule to
the figure, we find that ⃗ ⃗⃗ is directed out of paper whereas ⃗⃗ ⃗ is directed into the paper.
Although the magnitude of ⃗ ⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗ ⃗ is same i.e. AB sinθ, but their direction is opposite. Two
vectors are said to be different if their magnitudes are different, or their directions are different, or both
their magnitudes and directions are different.
⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗
Hence, "Cross Product does not obey Commutative Law."
If a negative sign is placed before a vector, its direction reverses, hence the direction of ⃗⃗ ⃗ will be
same as that of ⃗ ⃗⃗. Since their magnitude is equal, therefore
⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗
Q5. Elastic collision in one Dimension:
Mathematical Expressions:
We consider two non-rotating sphere A and B of masses m1 and m2, moving along the line joining their
centers with initial velocities u1 and u2 , such that u1 > u2. The two bodies collide, after which their
velocities become v1 and v2 as shown.
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Conservation Of Momentum:
According to law of conservation of Momentum.
Total Momentum before collision = Total Momentum after Collision
m1u1+m2u2 = m1v1+m2v2 - - - - Eq (1)
m1u1- m1v1 = m2u2 - +m2v2
m1 (u1-v1)= m2 (v2-u2) - - - - Eq (2)
Conservation of Kinetic Energy:
Since the collision in elastic, the total kinetic energy of the system.
Total K.E before collision = Total K.E after Collision
+ = +
+ =
- =
- -
m1 (u1-v1)= m2 (v2-u2) = m2 (v1-u1)= m2 (v2-u2) - - - - Eq(3)
dividing Eq (1) by Eq(1)
=
= - - - Eq(4)
Expression for “v1”
From Eq(4) we find the value of v2:
=
Putting this value in Eq (1) we get
m1u1+m2u2 = m1v1+m2v2 (u1+v1-u2)
m1u1+m2u2 = m1v1+m2v1 + m2v1 – m2u2
m1u1- m2u1 + 2m2u2 = +m1v1 + m2v1
( ) ( )
Expression for “v2”
From Eq (4) we find the value of v1:
v1=v2 + u2-u1
Putting this value in Eq (1) we get
m1u1+m2u2 = m1(v2+u2-u1) + m2v2
m1u1+m2u2 = m1v2 + m1u2 – m1u1 + m2v2
2m1u1 + m2u2 – m1u2 = m1v2 + m2v2
2m1u1 + 2(m2m1) u2 = (m1m2) v2
( ) ( )
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Q.6 Bank Curve

Bank Curve: An inclined road with some curvature and radius of curvature is called bank curve and
angle of inclination in called banking angle.
Explanation:
Consider a car is moving on an inckined road so that its normal reaction “N” split into its components as
shown in free body diagram below
Free body diagram:
Forces along X -axis:

EFx = -NSin
EFx = -NSin = Fc
-NSin =
NSin = - - - Eq(1)
Forces Along Y-Axis

EFy = -NCos - W
O = NCos - W
W = NCos
mg =
N = mg - - -Eq(ii)
Dividing both
=
Tan =
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Q.7 Gravitational Field is also a Conservative Field:
We consider a triangle shape ABC in gravitational field in which an object move in a closed path. I-e, A ->
B, B -> C, C -> A. The sides AB and AC are making some angle, i-e, α and β whereas the side CB is
perpendicular to gravitational field as shown in the above figure.
The total work done in a closed path can be written as:
________(A)
To find work A -> B:

[ f = w, d = d1]
…………(i)
In ΔABD:
θ
Put in Eq ………(i)
To Find Work done B -> C:
To find Work done C -> A:
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θ θ
…………(ii)
In ΔACD:
Put in eq (ii)
Put all work done equations in eq (A)
And!
We know that
…………………(B)
And
................... (C)
Compare Eq (B) & (C)
Since both properties of coservative field are verified in tge case of gravitational field so it is proved ,
that Gravitational fieldis also a conservative field.
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CHAPTER 6: FLUID STATICS
‫نہیں ہے۔‬Important ‫ میں سے کے کوئی سوال اس سال‬Theory ‫اس سے‬
CHAPTER 7 TO 13
1) Expression of Terminal Velocity
2) Equation of Continuity
3) Bernoulli’s Equation
4) Electric Field at a point due to two charges (Electric Dipole)
ELECTRIC DIPOLE:
A pair of two oppositely electric charges of equal magnitude separated by small
distance d in a simple system in electromagnetism.
q+ d q-
Mathematical explanation:
A pair of equal and opposite point charges separated by small distance so they
form electric dipole, to calculate electric field of the dipole at point C which is at a
distance Y from center of poles as shown in figure.
It is clear from figure that vertical components Ԑ + sinθ Ԑ - sinθ cancel each other
that the total electric field is equal to the vector sum of horizontal components:
Ԑnet = Ԑ + cosθ + Ԑ - cosθ
Ԑ+=Ԑ-=Ԑ
Ԑnet = Ԑcosθ + Ԑcosθ
Ԑnet = 2Ԑcosθ … equ (i)
We know that, electric field intensity between point charges.
Put the value in equ (i)

Ԑnet = 2* +cosθ … equ (ii)
On ∆ADC using function of cosine
Cosθ =
Cosθ =
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Cosθ =
put the value in equ (ii)
Ԑnet = 2* +
Ԑnet = * +
On ∆ADC using pythagorous theorem
H2 = B2 + P2
r = ( )2 + y2
taking root on both sides
r = √( )
put the value of r in equ (ii)
Ԑnet =
{√( ) }
Ԑnet =
{√( ) }
Ԑnet =
{√( ) }
Ԑnet =
{√( ) }
It is clear from figure that vertical components E+Sin E-Sin connect each other than the total electric
field is equal to the vector sum of horizontal components
Enet = E+Cos
E+E-=E
Enet = ECos + ECos
Enet = 2ECos . . . (Eq 1)
d<y
Put the value of r in Eq (ii)

Enet =
{√( ) }
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Enet =
{√( ) }
Enet =
{√( ) }
Enet = ⁄
( ) ⁄
Enet =
( )
3
Taking y common from denominate
Enet =
( )
Enet =
( )
Since, d is smaller than Y so its higher power can be neglected

Enet =
Enet =
5) Condition of Flux
Special cases:
1. Positive flux:
If 0° ≤θ < 90°, flux through the surface is positive.
When vector area and electric lines are parallel i.e. θ = 0° and cos 0° = 1, then max m positive flux
is obtained. (surface is to electric lines.)
Φ = EA cosθ
= EA (1)
Φ = EA
2. Negative flux:
If 90° < θ ≤ 180°, flux through the surface is negative.
When vector area and electric lines are anti-parallel i.e. 0 = 180° and
cos 180° = -1, then maxm negative flux is obtained. (surface is to electric lines.)
Φ = EA cosθ
= EA (-1)
Φ = -EA
3. MINIMUM (ZERO) FLUX:
When vector area and electric lines are perpendicular i.e. = 90° and cos 90° = 0, then min m flux is
obtained. (Surface is || to electric lines.)
Φ = E Acose
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= EA(0)
Φ=0
6) Relation between Electric Potential and Electric field Intensity

RELATION BETWEENELECTRIC INTENSITY & ELECTRIC POTENTIAL MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSIONS:
We consider a test charge +q0 being moved against electric field of a source
charge from point A (LOWER POTENTIAL) to another point B (HIGHER
POTENTIAL) such that the displacement from A to B is ∆r.
The potential difference between A & B is given as:
∆V=VB - VA
∆V =
∆V =
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆V =
⃗
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
∆V = [ ]
⃗ ⃗⃗
∆V = ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ … (i)
Thus, "potential difference is equal to the scalar product of electric field

intensity and displacement."
Rewriting equ (i) ∆V = E∆r cosθ
∆V = E∆r cos180° [displacement ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ of test charge is against Electric
Field E.]
∆V = E∆r (-1)
E = -* +
Thus, Electric field Intensity is equal to negative SPACE RATE OF CHANGE OF POTENTIAL.”
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7) Effect of Dielectric Medium on Capacitance.
DIELECTRIC-FILLED PARALLEL-PLATE CAPACITOR

WITH DIELECTRIC COMPLETELY FILLING THE SPACE BETWEEN THE
PLATES)
POLARIZATION (EFFECT OF DIELECTRIC):
In polarized atoms of a dielectric, electrons are displaced relative to the nucleus opposite to the
electric field, and positive charge is shifted in the direction of the field. Thus, each molecule
becomes an electric dipole.
"The redistribution of charges in a dielectric, under an electric field, is called POLARIZATION."
Due to polarization, charges appear on the faces of dielectric slab. The electric field of the polarized
slab is opposite to the electric field between the plates, thus electric Intensity decreases.
Consequently, the p.d. decreases by the factor Ԑr and the capacitance increases by Ԑr.
8) Combination of Capacitors
Series combination of capacities:
1. The charge stored on all the capacitors is the same.
2. The sum of the individual potential differences sum up to the total potential difference.
3. The reciprocal of equivalent capacitance is equal to sum of reciprocals of individual capacitances.
Thus, capacitance decreases when capacitors are connected in series.
1. The equivalent capacitance is less than the capacitance with the least value.
Parallel combination of capacities:
1. The potential difference across all the capacitors is same.
2. The charge stored on each capacitor directly depends upon the value of its capacitance (q=CV).
The higher the value of capacitance, the more the charge stored on it.
3. The sum of the individual charges sum up to the total charge
4. The equivalent capacitance is equal to sum of individual capacitances. Thus, capacitance increases
when capacitors are connected in parallel
5. The equivalent capacitance is greater than the capacitance with largest value.
9) Effects of Resistance and Resistivity upon Temperature

DEPENDENCE OF RESISTANCE UPON TEMPERATURE
INTRODUCTION:
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Resistance offered by a conductor to the flow of electric current is due to collisions which the free
electrons make with the atoms of the lattice. As the temperature of the conductor rises, the amplitude
of the vibration of the atoms increases and hence the collisions with free electrons increases. Thus the
resistance of the conductor increases.
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON RESISTANCE:
We consider a conductor having length L and cross-sectional area A . Let the resistance of the conductor
at temperature T1 =0 oC be R0 . It is heated so that its temperature becomes T2 t oC, while its resistance
increases to Rt, Here.
Increase in Resistance R = Rt – R0
Increase in temperature T = t – 0 = t
Expression for Change in Resistance:
Experiment reveal that R directly depends upon the temperature and initial resistance, i.e
R α R0
R α T
Combining R α R0T
In equation form R = α R0T or R = α R0t - - - - Eq (1)
The temporary constant α is called TEMPRATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE. It is a Material
Constant.
EXPRESSION FOR FINAL RESISTANCE:
R = α R0T
= Rt – R0 = α R0T
= Rt = R0 = α R0T
= Rt = R0(1+αT) - - - Eq (2)
Or Rt = R0(1+αT)
Expression of Temperature on Resistivity
Let Po be the resistivity of the conductor at temperature T1 = 0 oC, and Pt be it resistivity temperature at
tempertature T2 = t oC, Here
Increase in Resistivity P = Pt – Po
EXPRESSION FOR FINAL RESISTIVIT
For any conductor we can write
R=P
At Temperature T1 = 0 oC R0 = p0
At Temperature T1 = 0 oC Rt = pt
Now Eq (2) Becomes pt = pt (1+αT)
Pt = P0 (1+ αT) - - - Eq(3)
OR Pt = P0 (1+ αt)
10) Difference between EMF and Terminal Voltage
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EMF Terminal Volt

 The potential which is generated inside  The potential which is appeared at the
battery due to conversion of chemical terminal of battery is called terminal
energy mostly is called EMF and denoted voltage and denoted by “V”.
by “E”.
 E.M.F Produced by a battery remain same  While terminal voltages continuously
magnitude wise as lime passes. decrease as the line passes.
 Due to increase in internal resistance  Due to increase in internal resistors,
E.M.F doesn’t affected. terminal voltage are affected. However
becomes zero.
 Mathematically  Mathematically
E = V+Ir V= IR
E = IR + Ir
E = I(R+r)
Note
 “V” is greater then battery is only charging  “E” only when the (Exceptional case)
otherwise “E” is greater then “V”.
11) Kirchhoff’s Law for series and parallel resistors combination
12) Wheatstone bridge
Definition:
If four resistors are joined in a closed path ABCDA. The terminal A and C are joined
battery and with key K, while the terminal B and D are joined with galvanometer and K2 then this
complex circuit is called Wheat Stone Bridge.
If Key k1 is closed the current I is following in a circuit when this current I reaches at Junction, A then
it divides into two ways that is I1 and I2. If Key remains open then I1 reaches at point C and I2 as well
and both component are mixed. In this way no deflection is experienced n galvanometer. Now
consider key K2 is closed then some current is also flowed in galvanometer and it is also possible that
k2 remains closed but then also no current is flowed form galvanometer It only possible it potential
of junction B and D is same and this straight is called Balanced Wheat Stone Bridge.
For balanced Wheat Stone Bridg
AVB = ACV
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I1R1 = I2R3 - - - Eq(i)
Similarly
ABC = VOC
I1R2 = I2R4 - - - Eq(i)
=
=
Conclusion:
With the help of above expression we can find unknown resistances of circuit.
13) Simple harmonic Motion
(Mass Spring System and Uniform Circular motion)
Simple Pendulum
CONNECTION BETWEEN UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION& SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
Prove that Simple Harmonic Motion can be described as the projection of uniform Circular Motion
along a diameter of the circle.
PROOF:
Consider a particle P moving in a circle of radius r with uniform angular velocity. Let  be the
angular displacement of P at time t = 0, and t is the angular displacement of P in elapsed time t.
Then the net angular displacement of the body is:
Θ =  + t
Where  is called INITIAL PHASE or PHASE CONSTANT
As P rotates on the circle with uniform speed, its projection Q on diameter AB vibrates about centre
of circle O such that it speeds up when moving towards O and decelerates when moving away from
O. Thus, the acceleration of Qis directed towards mean position and increases with displacement x
from mean position.
In right triangle AOPQ, the displacement x of Q is given by:
Cosθ =
 x=rcosθ
Let ac be the centripetal acceleration of P, and a be the linear acceleration of Q. It is obvious from
figure that the acceleration of Q is the x-component of acceleration of P.
In right triangle AOPQ,
Cosθ =
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 a = accosθ
 a = ac … from equ (i)
ac =
 
 ac = =
 ac = 
 a = ( r) 2
 a = (-2 x)
Negative sign is introduced to show that a is opposite to x, i.e towards mean position
In above equation,  is a constant, thus
a = (constant) (-x)
 a∝-x
This is an equation representing SHM, which indicates that the acceleration of Q is directly
proportional to its displacement and is directed towards mean position. Hence, motion of Q is
simple harmonic motion.
MOTION OF MASS-SPRING SYSTEM

UNDER ELASTIC RESTORING FORCE
Prove that a mass attached to an ideal spring and free to move over a frictionless horizontal
surface Performs simple harmonic motion.
EXPLANATION:
We consider a body of mass m attached with a light spring placed on a smooth, frictionless
horizontal surface. A force is applied to displace the body from its mean position O to position A,
such hat it is moved with small uniform velocity.
According to Hooke's Law,

Applied Force & Displacement
i.e. FAPP ∝ x
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 FAPP = k x
The constant of proportionality k is called SPRING CONSTANT or FORCE CONSTANT.
In accordance with Newton's 3rd Law, a reaction force due to the elasticity of the spring acts on the
body, which is equal but opposite to the applied force. This ELASTIC RESTORING FORCE tends to
bring the body back to its mean position.
Thus, we write
FR = -F
 FR = - kx
Since the elastic restoring force is responsible for the body's acceleration towards the mean
position, thus
FR= ma
ma = - kx
 a=-
 A = (constant) (-x)
 A∝-x
Thus, the motion of Mass-Spring System is Simple Harmonic Motion.
SPRING CONSTANT:
DEFINITION:
"The force required to produce unit elongation in a spring is termed as the SPRING CONSTANT or
FORCE CONSTANT of that spring."
MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION:
Mathematically, it is the ratio of force to displacement
K=
UNITS:
The SI unit of spring constant is (Newton per meter).
MOTION OF SIMPLE PENDULUM
UNDER GRAVITATIONAL RESTORING FORCE
Prove that a simple pendulum performs simple harmonic motion, if it is given a small displacement.
DEFINITION:
A point mass suspended from a frictionless, rigid support by a light, inextensible string is known as
SIMPLE PENDULUM."
A metallic bob suspended from some rigid support by a thread is a close approximation of simple
pendulum.
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PROOF:
Consider a pendulum of length l and bob of mass m. Let x be the displacement of the bob from
mean position. The forces acting on the bob are:
1. Tension T in the string, along the string upwards
2. Weight w of the bob, vertically downwards
Weight W can be resolved into two components:
a. Component along the string is
wII = wcosθ
b. Component perpendicular to the string is
w = wisnθ
Since the bob does not move along the string, therefore
T = wII = wcosθ
Hence, the net force responsible for motion of bob is w , which is actually GRAVITATIONAL
RESTORING FORCE. Thus,
Fr = w
Fr = wsinθ
Fr = mgsinθ
We introduce negative sign to indicate that Fr is directed towards mean position, against θ.
Fr = -mgsinθ
For small values of θ (up to 5°), we can take sin θ=θ
Fr = -mgθ
ma = - mgθ
a=-g
a=-
For a particular pendulum, g and l are both constants. Thus,
a=(Constant)(-x)
a ∝ -x
14) Graphical Representation of SHM
15) Newton’s formula for speed of sound and Laplace Correction
LAPLACE CORRECTION
Laplace suggested that the propagation of sound waves through air is not isothermal process,
rather it is an ADIBATIC PROCESS. i.e no heat transfer takes place during the process. According to
him, sound waves travel in the form of compression and rarefactions are the temperature of
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compressions rises above the normal air temperature, while the temperature of rarefactions falls
below the normal air temperature. Heat is not transferred from hotter compression to colder
rarefaction due to
1. Poor thermal conductivity of air
2. Extreme Shortage of time involved in the transfer
He correctly established that this is an Adiabatic Phenomenon for which Boyle’s Law is
= Constant
(At Const T)
Where = ⁄ Ratio of Molar Specific Heats of Gas
For Air = 1.41

Thus, the Bulk Modulus becomes B=
Now Eq (1) Becomes √ - - - -Eq (3)
This expression is called LAPLACE’S FORMULA
CORRECTION OF LAPPLACE’S FORMULA
The velocity of sound calculated by Laplace’s Formula agrees well with experimental value
FINAL EXPRESSOIN:
Eq (3) can be rewritten as √ -
√ [Pv = nRT] General Gas

Equation
√
√ n = m/M = M=m/n
√ - - - - Eq (4)
Where M = Molecular Mass of Air = 28.8 gm/mol
Eq (4) can be rewritten as
√ √ = (Constant) √
√
16) Modes of Vibration (loops)
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STANDING WAVES IN STRING
STANDING WAVES:
DEFINITION:
"When two waves of same amplitude, frequency and wavelength travelling in opposite directions
superpose each other, the profile of the resultant wave does not travel in any direction and the
energy remains 'standing' with it. Such a wave is called STANDING WAVE or STATIONARY WAVE."
EXPLANATION: If a transverse wave is produced in a stretched string, the wave Is reflected on
reaching the ends of the string. The incident and reflected waves have the same wavelength,
frequency and amplitude, and therefore their superposition results in a stationary wave.
FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY & HARMONICS:
We consider a stretched string of length I' that is fixed at both ends to two rigid beams. Standing
waves can be produced on it by plucking it at different points.
FREQUENCY FOR ONE LOOP:
When string is plucked at its mid-point it vibrates in one loop. Let λ1 be the wavelength, f1 be the
frequency and v be the wave speed
It is obvious that
We know that
V=f1
f1 v/
f1 =
This is known as the 1st HARMONIC or the FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY FOR TWO LOOPS
When string is plucked 1/4th or 3/4th of its length it vibrates in two loops. Let be the wavelength ,
f2 be the frequency and v be the wave speed
It is obvious that
=
We know that
v = f2
f2 = v/
f2 = v/
This is known as the 2nd HARMONIC or the 1st overtone
FREQUENCY FOR THREE LOOPS
When string is plucked 1/6th or 5/6th of its length it vibrates in two loops. Let be the wavelength ,
f3 be the frequency and v be the wave speed
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We know that
v= f3
f3 = v/
f3 =
f3
This is known as the 3rd HARMONIC or the 2nd OVERTONE FREQUENCY FOR “n” LOOPS
FREQUENCY FOR “n” LOOPS
For 1 Loops
f1 = ( )
For 2 Loops
F2 = ( )
For 3 Loops
F3 = ( )
Similarly , for n loops

fn = n ( ) . . .. Eq(1)
fn = nf1
th
This is known as the n harmonic r the (n-1)th OVERTONE.
Thus “The frequency of any harmonic is the integral multiple of the fundamental frequency.
17) Doppler’s Effect

Doppler’s Effect
Introduction
An Austrian Physicist Christian Johan DOPPLER was the first to explain this effect in a research
paper in 1842.
Definition
“The apparent change in the frequency of sound due to relative motion between source
and observe is called DOPPLER’S EFFECT”.
Example:
Police car ambulance and fire brigade vehicles use high frequency sound, when they are moving
at hig h speed towards on observer, pitch (frequency) appears to increase. But when are moving
away form an observer, the pitch appears to decrease.
1. MOVING OBSERVER, STATIONARY SOURCE
Case 1A – Observer moves towards stationary source
We consider a source of sound emitting sound of frequency f , wavelength λ and velocity v, thus,
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v=fλ
f = v/ λ . . . Eq (1)
An observer is moving towards stationary source with velocity v0 . Now the relative velocity between
observer and sound waves is
v' = v + v0
Consequently, the frequency heard by the observer will be
f' = v/ λ
f’ = v+v0/ λ . . . Eq(2)
dividing Eq 2 by Eq 1
f’ ( )f
f’ ( )f
f’( )f
The apparent frequency f’ is greater than actual frequency f, hence a higher pitch is heard.
Case 1B – Observer moves away stationary source

v=fλ
f = v/ λ . . . Eq (1)
An observer is moving towards stationary source with velocity v0 . Now the relative velocity between
observer and sound waves is
v' = v + v0
Consequently, the frequency heard by the observer will be
f' = v/ λ
f’ = v+v0/ λ . . . Eq(2)
dividing Eq 2 by Eq 1
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f’ ( )f
f’ ( )f
f’( )f
The apparent frequency f’ is less than actual frequency f, hence a higher pitch is heard.
2. STATIONARY OBSERVER, MOVING SOURCE
v=fλ
f = v/ λ . . . Eq (1)
The source of sound is moving towards a stationary observer with velocity V s. Let S be the distance
covered by the source during time T (time period). Then the shortened wavelength observer’s side is
λ' = λ – s [s=vt]
λ' = λ – vsT *v= f λ+

λ' = – [ & T= 1/f]
Consequently the frequency heard by the observer will be
f’=
f’
f’ = ( )f
Thus apparent frequency is greater than actual frequency f. hence a higher pitch is heard
CASE 2B – SOURVE MOVES AWAY FROM STATIONARY OBSERVER
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v=fλ
f = v/ λ . . . Eq (1)
The source of sound is moving away a stationary observer with velocity V s. Let S be the distance
covered by the source during time T (time period). Then the shortened wavelength observer’s side is
λ' = λ + s [s=vt]
λ' = λ + vsT [v= f λ+

λ' = + [ & T= 1/f]
Consequently the frequency heard by the observer will be
f’=
f’
f’ = ( )f
Thus apparent frequency is less than actual frequency f. hence a higher pitch is heard
18) Young Double Slit Experiment or Thin film

INTRODUCTION
In 1801, Thomas Young first illustrated the phenomenon interface experiment
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP (CONSTRUCTION)
Thomas Young adopted the technique of dividing light emitted
from a single source into two parts by using two slits in order to obtain
phase coherence between them. In the setup,
B is a barrier having two narrow slits S1 and S2.
S is s screen on which interference s observed
L is the distance between slits and screen
And d is the slit separation
When monochromatic light of wavelength λ is allowed to fall on S1 and S2, the two slits serve as a
pair of coherent light sources. Consequently, a series of dark and bright fringes are observed on the
screen due to interference.
THEORY AND MATHEMATICALLY EXPRESSION:
Consider a point F on the screen. Two light waves reach this point from S1 and S2 after covering
distances r1 and r2, respectively. It is obvious that
r2 – r1 = S2R
i.e (Path Difference) = S=S2R - - - Eq (1)
In right triangle OFQ tan =
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tan =
tan =
For small values of , we can write
Sin = tan
Sin = - - - - Eq (2)
In right triangle S1S2R Sin =
Sin =
Sin = From Eq 1
s = dsin
s = d (Y/L) From Eq 2
Y = sL/d - - - Eq (3)
POSITION OF BRIGHT FRINGES
For a bright Fringes, interference should be constructive whose path difference is
S=mλ
Rewriting Eq (1) , we get
YB = m
Where m = 0, 1, is called ORDER of Interference
Where
m = 0 locates the central fringes on the screen
m = 1,2,3 . . . locate bright fringes on the screen upper half
m = -1,-2,-3 . . . locate bright fringes on the screen upper half
POSITION OF DARK FRINGES
For a dark fringes interference should be destructive whose path difference as
S=(m+ λ
Rewriting eq (1) and (2) we get
YD = ( m +
Where m = 0, 1, is called ORDER of Interference
Conclusion
m = 0,1,2,3, . . . locate dark fringes on the screen’s upper half
m = -1,-2,-3, . . . locate dark fringes on the screen’s upper half
FRINGE SPACING
Definition
The distance between two consecutive bright fringes or the distance between two consecutive dark
fringes is called FRINES SPACING.
Mathematically Expression
For 1st and 2nd bright fringes , we take m =1 and m = 2 , respectively
yB = YB2 – YB1
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YB =2 -
YB =
Similarly for 1st and 2nd fark fringes , we take m =0 and

m = 1 , respectively
yD = YD2 – YD1
YB = -
YD =
Y =
INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILM
A soap bubble a wet surface or a thin layer of oil floating on water are common example of thin film.
When white light is reflected from such a film, beautiful colours are observed due to interference. this
phenomenon is called INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
EXPLANATION
When light coming from an extended monochromatic source is incident occurs between the rays
reflected from the upper surface A and the lower surface B of this film
To determine the conditions of constructive interference following important point must be considered
1. PHASE REVERSAL AND SWAPPING OF CONDITION FOR PATH DIFFERENCE
If light is reflected from denser medium (of higher reflective index) there occur a phase change 180 o =
rad. However if light is reflected from a rarer medium (lower refracted index here occur no phase
change, similarly there is no phase change in light when refraction take place.
Thus there occur a phase reversal phase change 180 = rad) in ray I, but there is not phase II
In case of phase of reversal, the condition for path difference have to be swapped between
constructive and destructive interference
For Constructive Interference For Destructive Interference
(Path Difference] = S = [ m + ½] (Path Difference] = S = m
2. CHANGE OF WAVELENGTH
The wavelength of light changes when it passes from one medium to another, while its
frequency remains the same. The wavelength of light in a medium whose refractive index is n. is given
by
’=
Where is wavelength of light in air
MATHEMETICALLY EXPRESSIONS
For normal incidence on a film of thickness t, path difference ray I and ray II is 2t,
FOR CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

s = (m+
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Here 2t = (m+ ’
2t = (m+
= 2nt = (m+
FOR DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
s=m
Here 2t = m ’
2t = m
2nt = m
19) Newton’s Ring OR Difference
INTRODUCTION:
Whenever monochromatic light is Incident upon a system of piano-
convex lens placed on glass Sheet, then Interference takes place due
to thus film of air-wedge formed between lens an. 7.11, glass
surface At a particular thickness of at film, one type of interference
takes Place around the plano-convex lens, which results in alternate
bright and dark rings known as NEWTON'S RINGS
PRINCIPLE:
As the thickness of air film vanes from zero at the point of
contact to maximum value at the end of lens, there form alternate
dark and bright fringes wit central point being dark.
EXPLANATION:
We consider a system of plano-convex lens of radius of curvature R
placed on a flat glass sheet Monochromatic light of wavelength A is
made to fall on the plano-convex lens normally.
The incident ray is partially reflected from upper surface of air him between lens and glass, and
light is partially refracted Into the film which again reflects horn lower surface with phase change of
180° due to higher index of glass Plate. Therefore, the two Parts of light interfere constructively and
destructively forming alternate dark and bright fringes.
Now consider a ring of radius r due to thickness t of an him as shown in figure. According to
geometrical theorem, the Product of intercepts of intersecting chords is equal to the product of sections
of diameter, then
&
r x r = t x (2R – t)
r2 = 2Rt – t2
At t is very small, thus t2 can be neglected and we get
r2 = 2Rt
t= - - - - (Eq (1)
RADIUS OF BRIGHT RING:
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The condition of constructive interference in the film
2nt = (m+ (m = 0,
For air – wedge film n = 1 , and putting value of t from Eq (1)
2 (1) = (m+
r2 = (m+
rN = √ - - - Eq (2)
st
For 1 Bright ring N = 1 and m = 0
r1 = √
For 2nd Bright ring N = 2 and m = 1
R2 = √
For 3rd Bright ring N = 3 and m = 2
R3 = √
Similarly for Nth bright ring,
M=N–1
Thus equ (ii) becomes
rN = √
rN = √
RADIUS OF DARK RING:

The condition for destructive interference in thin film
2nt=mλ
For air-wedge film, n = 1. And putting value of t from equ (i)
 2* +
 r2 = m R
 rN = √
For m = 0, r = 0. This corresponds to the dark spot at the point of contact of convex portion of lens
and flat grass sheet.
For 1st Bright ring N = 1 and m = 1
 r1 = √
nd
For 2 Bright ring N = 2 and m = 2
 r2 = √
similarly for Nth dark ring
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 m=N
thus equ (iv) becomes
 rN = √
CONCLUSION:
Now if the radius of curvature of plano-convex lens is known and radius of particular dark or bright
ring is experimentally measured then wavelength of light used can be calculated.
OR
DIFFRACTION GRATING
INTRODUCTION
A German physicist Joseph Von Fraunhoffer, invented a simple way of measuring the
wavelength of light. The device he used is called DIFFRCATION GRATING.
DEFINITION
A grating is a glass plate upon which is rule a number of equality spaced opaque lines, usually
several thousand per centimeter.
MATHEMATICALLY EXPRESSION
Let us consider a diffraction grating with slit width a and the width of opaque line b, then
(Grating Element) = d = a + b
Or d= Length of Grating / No. of Lines ruled
d=
When
Parallel beam of monochromatic light falls on a grating normally, they are diffracted in many
directions. The parallel diffracted rays are focused on a screen by a convex lens and fringes are
obtained,
Consider a ray r2 which cover further distances than ray r1 , thus
(Path Difference) = s = r2 – r1
In right triangle S1S2R,
Sin =
Sin =
Sin =
For maxima (Bright fringes with max intensity, we use condition of construction interference
(Path Difference) = s = mλ
Thus Eq(1) Becomes
mλ =
Here d is the inter planar distance of crystal
m is order to diffraction
λ is wavelength of light used,
is angle of diffraction which can be measured by spectrometer
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CONCLUSION
In above equation d,m and are measureable so λ can be calculated.
DIFFRACTION OF X-RAYS IN ROCKSALT CRYSTALS

INTRODUCTION:
X-rays have very short wavelength less than that of visible and ultraviolet light. As a result,
diffraction of x-rays cannot be observed with the help of common grating as x-rays pass straight
through the slits of grating. However, it Is possible to obtain x-ray diffraction by making use of
crystals such as rock salt (NacL) crystal. In which the atoms are uniformly spaced in planes separated
by distance of the order 2 – 5 A therefore diffraction of X-Rays take place when they are passed
thorough rock-salt crystals as shown in figure.
MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS:
Consider rock-salt crystal lattice, with planes separated by spacing d from one another. It Is clear
from figure that ray I covers more distance as compared to ray II. Thus, the Path different between
the two rays is:
(Path Difference) = |̅̅̅̅ | + |̅̅̅̅|
In right triangle ABC,

Sin =
|̅̅̅̅ |
Sin = |̅̅̅̅|
|̅̅̅̅ |
Sin =
|̅̅̅̅ |
In right triangle ABD,

Sin =
|̅̅̅̅ |
Sin = |̅̅̅̅|
|̅̅̅̅ |
Sin =
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|̅̅̅̅ |
Now Eq (1) Becomes

(Path Difference)
(Path Difference) - - - - Eq(2)
For maxima (Bright fringes with max intensity, we use condition of construction interference
(Path Difference) = s = mλ
Thus Eq(2) Becomes
mλ =
this relation is called BRAGG’S LAW
Here d is the inter planar distance of crystal
m is order to diffraction
λ is wavelength of light used,
is angle of diffraction which can be measured by spectrometer
CONCLUSION
In above equation d,m and are measureable so λ can be calculated.
20) Types of Modulations
A Single possesses multiple parameter like Amplitude, Frequency and Phase. In case of Modulation any
of these parameters of a career signal (baseband signal) which differentiate the types of modulation
being used. The Analogue Modulation which is largely divided into two major types.
1. Amplitude Modulation
2. Angle Modulation
The Angle Modulation is further divided into two main types
1. Frequency Modulation
2. Phase Modulation
We will only discuss Frequency Modulations a scope of this book
Amplitude Modulation:
It is the type of modulation in which the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied in proportion to the
message signal whereas the frequency and phase of the carrier are constant. Television Broadcast is an
example of AM.
Expression for Amplitude Modulated Wave:
We have carrier wave and modulating signal
m(t)=Amsinꙍmt and c(t) = Acsinꙍct . . . . Eq(1)
m(t) = modulating single and c(t) = carrier wave.
Am and Ac are Amplitude of modulating signal and carrier wave respectively in Amplitude modulation.
Amplitude-modulated wave Cm(t) = (Ac + Am sinꙍmt) sinꙍct . . . . Eq (2)
This is the general form of amplitude modulated wave.
Where,
A=Ac+Amsinꙍmt = Amplitude of the modulated wave
sinꙍct = Phase of modulated wave Cm(t) = Ac (1+Am/Ac sinꙍct + tsinꙍct
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Where,
Am/Ac = μ = modulation index
Cm(t) = Acsinꙍct + Acusinꙍmtsinꙍct
Frequency Modulation:
It is the type of modulation in which the frequency of the carrier signal varies in proportion to the
message signal and the amplitude of a carrier wave remains constant. Cellular communication is an
example of FM.
Expression for Frequency Modulated Wave:
As we know from amplitude modulation, we need two sine (or) cosine waves for modulation.
m(t) = Amcos (ꙍmt) and c(t) = Accos(ꙍmt) . . . . Eq (1)
or
m(t) = Amcos (2π fmt) and c(t) = Accos (2πfct) Then frequency modulated wave will be;
fm(t) = fc + k Am cos (2π fmt) . . . . Eq(2)
fm (t) fc + k m(t)
Where,
fm(t) = is frequency modulated wave
fc → frequency of the carrier wave
m(t) → modulating signal and k →proportionality constant
Advantages of AM (Modulation)
1. Simplicity: AM modulation is relatively simple to implement, making it cost-effective and widely used
in broadcasting.
2. Efficient use of bandwidth: AM occupies a narrower bandwidth compared to FM, making it suitable
for long-range communication and more efficient use of available frequencies.
Advantages of FM (Modulation)
1. Better sound quality: FM provides better sound quality compared to AM, making it ideal for
broadcasting music and high-fidelity audio.
2. Noise immunity: FM is less susceptible to noise and static interference, resulting in clearer and more
consistent reception.
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Differentiating the above equation w.r.t to time.

2) Work Energy Theorem.

We know that W = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗

5) Relation between torque, moment of inertia and angular acceleration.

Angle of response is equal to angle of friction

To make convenient calculation we divide following in five step

2. Drive second or third equation of motion by graphical method.

DISTRIBUTIVE LAW OF DOT PRODUCT:

Q.6 Bank Curve

Forces along X -axis:

Forces Along Y-Axis

Q.7 Gravitational Field is also a Conservative Field:

To find work A -> B:

To Find Work done B -> C:

To find Work done C -> A:

Put all work done equations in eq (A)

Put the value in equ (i)

Put the value of r in Eq (ii)

Since, d is smaller than Y so its higher power can be neglected

6) Relation between Electric Potential and Electric field Intensity

Thus, "potential difference is equal to the scalar product of electric field

7) Effect of Dielectric Medium on Capacitance.

DIELECTRIC-FILLED PARALLEL-PLATE CAPACITOR

9) Effects of Resistance and Resistivity upon Temperature

10) Difference between EMF and Terminal Voltage

EMF Terminal Volt

MOTION OF MASS-SPRING SYSTEM

According to Hooke's Law,

14) Graphical Representation of SHM

For Air = 1.41

√ [Pv = nRT] General Gas

Similarly , for n loops

17) Doppler’s Effect

Case 1B – Observer moves away stationary source

λ' = λ – vsT *v= f λ+

CASE 2B – SOURVE MOVES AWAY FROM STATIONARY OBSERVER

λ' = λ + vsT [v= f λ+

18) Young Double Slit Experiment or Thin film

Similarly for 1st and 2nd fark fringes , we take m =0 and

FOR CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

RADIUS OF DARK RING:

DIFFRACTION OF X-RAYS IN ROCKSALT CRYSTALS

In right triangle ABC,

In right triangle ABD,

Now Eq (1) Becomes

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