Work, Energy, and Power

Work done by a force is defined as the product of that force and the parallel distance over which it
acts.
W =( [ Force ] ) ( d )
W =( FcosΘ )( d )
W =FdcosΘ
Units of Work
SI unit Newton-meter (Nm), Joule (J) 1 J = Fd = 1N-1m
erg 1 erg = 10-7 J
Foot-pound (ft-lb) 1 ft-lb = 1.355 J

Energy is a measure of the change imparted to a system. The amount of energy transferred to the
object equals the work done. Energy has the same units as work (joules being the standard).
Kinetic Energy (KE) is the energy possessed by an object because it is in motion. If an object of
mass m is moving with a speed v, it has translational KE (in joules) given by
1
KE= m v 2
2
where m is in kg and v is in m/s.
Gravitation Potential Energy (PEG) is the energy possessed by an object because of gravity. In
falling through a vertical distance h, a mass m can do work in the amount mgh.
PE G=mgh

where g is the acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2). PEG is measured in joules where m is in kg, g is in
m/s2, and h is in m.
The Work-Energy Theorem: The principle of work and kinetic energy states that the work done by
the sum of all forces acting on a body equals the change in the kinetic energy of the particle.
Conservation of Energy: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but only transformed from
one kind to another.
Power is the time rate of doing work:
work done by a force
Average power= do work ¿=( force)( speed )
time taken ¿
W
P= =Fv
t
where the speed is measured in the direction of the force applied to the object. Power is the rate of
transfer of energy.
Units of Power
SI unit Watt (W) 1 W = 1 J/s
Horsepower (hp) 1 hp = 746 W

The Kilowatt-Hour is a unit of energy. If a force is doing work at a rate of 1 kW (1000J/s), then in 1
hour it will do 1 kW-h of work: 1 kW ∙ h=3.6 x 106 J =3.6 MJ
Simple Machines
A machine is any device by which the magnitude, direction, or method of application of a force is
changed so as to achieve some advantage. Examples of simple machines are the lever, inclined
plane, pulley, crank and axle, and jackscrew.
The principle of work that applies to a continuously operating machine is as follows:
Work input=useful work output+ work ¿ overcome friction
In machines that operate for only a short time, some of the input work may be used to store energy
within the machine. An internal spring might be stretched, or a movable pulley might be raised, like
the ones in the concept of mechanical advantage.
Mechanical Advantage: The actual mechanical advantage (AMA) of a machine is
Force exerted by machine on load
AMA=force ratio= operate the machine ¿
Forceused ¿
The ideal mechanical advantage (IMA) of a machine is
distance moved by input force
IMA=distance ratio=
distance moved by load
Because friction is always present, the AMA is always less than the IMA. In general, both the AMA
and IMA are greater than one.
The efficiency of a machine is
work output power output AMA
Efficiency= = =
work input power input IMA
Impulse and Momentum
The linear momentum (⃗p) of a body is the product of its mass m and velocity ⃗v:
linear momentum=(mass)( velocity)
⃗p=m⃗v
Momentum is a vector quantity whose direction is the same as the direction in its velocity. The SI unit
for momentum is kg-m/s.
F ) and the time interval (∆t) over which the force acts:
Impulse (with unit N-s) is the product of force (⃗
impulse= ( force )( time ) =⃗
Ft
The change of momentum produced by an impulse is equal to the impulse in both magnitude and
direction. Thus, if a constant force ⃗ F acting for a time ∆t on a body of mass m changes its velocity
from an initial value ⃗vi to a final value ⃗v f , then
impulse=change∈momentum
F t=m( ⃗v f −⃗v i )
⃗

F ∆ t=⃗
⃗ ∆p
F ∆ t=∆( m⃗v )
⃗

∆p
⃗
F=
Newton’s second law, as he gave it, is ⃗ from which it follows the equations above.
∆t
Conservation of Linear Momentum: If the net external force acting on a system of objects is zero,
the vector sum of the momenta of the objects will remain constant.
In collisions and explosions, the vector sum of the momenta just before the event equals the vector
sum of the momenta just after the event. The vector sum of the momenta of the objects involved does
not change during the collision or explosion.
Thus, when two bodies of masses m1 and m2 collide,
m 1 u⃗1+ m2 ⃗
u2=m 1 ⃗
v 1+ m 2 ⃗
v2

u1 and ⃗
where ⃗ u2 are the velocities before impact, and ⃗
v1 and ⃗
v 2 are the velocities after.
A perfectly elastic collision is one in which the sum of the translational Kes of the object is not
changed during the collision. In the case of two bodies,
1 1 1 1
m u 2 + m u 2= m v 2 + m v 2
2 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2
Coefficient of Restitution: For any collision between two bodies in which the bodies move only
along a single straight line (like the x-axis), a coefficient of restitution e is defined. It is a pure number
given by
v 2 x −v 1 x
e=v2𝑥=𝑣1𝑥𝑢1𝑥−𝑢2𝑥e=
u1 x −u2 x

where the u values are before the impact and the v values are after the impact. |u1 x −u2 x| represents
the speed of approach, whilst |v 2 x −v 1 x| represents the speed of recession.

For a perfectly elastic collision: e = 1

For an inelastic collision: e < 1
If the bodies stick together after collision: e = 0
The center of mass of an object (of mass m) is the single point that moves in the same way as a
point mass (of mass m) would move when subjected to the same external forces that act on the
F , the
object. That is, if the resultant force acting on an object (or system of objects) of mass m is ⃗
F
⃗
acceleration of the center of mass of the object (or system) is given by ⃗ a cm= .
m
If the object is considered to be composed of tiny masses m 1, m2, m3, …., at coordinates (x1, y1, z1),
(x2, y2, z2), and so on, then the coordinates of the center of mass are given by

Rigid-Body Rotation
The torque/moment is a measure of force that can cause an object to rotate about an axis.
The moment of inertia (I) of a body is a measure of the rotational inertia of the body.
If a body is considered to be made up of tiny masses m1, m2, m3… at a respective distance r1,
r2, r3,… from an axis, its moment of inertia about the axis is

I =m 1 r 21 +m 2 r 22+ m3 r 23+ …=Σ m i r 2i

Wherein the unit of I is kg-m2

It is convenient to define a radius of gyration (k) for an object about an axis by the relation

I =M k 2
where M is the total mass of the object. Hence k is the distance a point mass M must be from the axis
if the point mass is to have the same I as the object.
Torque and Angular Acceleration: A torque T acting on a moment of inertia I produces in it an
angular acceleration α given by T =Iα
Here, T, I, and α are all computed with respect to the same axis. As for units, T is in N-m, I is in kg-
m2, and α must be in rad/s2.
The kinetic energy of rotation (KEr) of a mass whose moment of inertia about an axis is I, and
which is rotating about the axis with angular velocity ω is
1
KE r = I ω2
2
where the energy is in joules and ω must be in rad/s.
Combined Rotation and Translation: The KE of a rolling ball or other rolling objects of mass M is
the sum of its rotational KE about an axis through its center of mass and the translational KE of an
equivalent point mass moving with the center of the mass. In symbols,
1 1
KE total= I ω 2+ M v 2
2 2
Note: I = moment of inertia of the object about an axis through its mass center
ω = angular velocity
M = mass
v = velocity
The work (w) done on a rotating body during an angular displacement Θ by a constant torque T is
given by
W =T Θ
where W is in joules and Θ is in radians.
The power (P) transmitted to a body by a torque is given by
P=T ω
wherein T is the applied torque about the axis of rotation, and ω is the angular speed about that same
axis. Radian measure must be used for ω.
Angular Momentum is a vector quantity that has magnitude Iω and is directed along the axis of
rotation. If the net torque on a body is zero, its angular momentum will remain unchanged in both
magnitude and direction, called the law of conservation of angular momentum.
Angular Impulse has magnitude Tt where t is the time during which the constant torque T acts on
the object. In analogy to the linear case, an angular impulse Tt on a body causes a change in angular
momentum of the body given by
Tt =I ω f −I ωi

Parallel-Axis Theorem: The moment of inertia I of a body about an axis parallel to an axis through
the center of mass is

I =I cm + M h2

where Icm = moment of inertia about an axis through the center of mass
M = total mass of the body
h = perpendicular distance between the two parallel axes
The moments of inertia (about an axis through the center of mass) of several uniform objects, each of
mass M, are shown as

Analogous Linear and

Angular Quantities
If, in the equations for linear motion, we replace linear quantities by the corresponding angular
quantities, we get the corresponding equations for angular motion. Thus, we have

In these
Simple Harmonic Motion and Springs
The Period (T) of a cyclic system, one that is vibrating or rotating in a repetitive fashion, is the time
required for one complete full cycle. In the case of vibration, it is the total time for the combined back
and forth motion of the system. The period is the number of seconds per cycle.
The Frequency (f) is the number of vibrations made per unit time or the number of cycles per
second. Because (T) is the time for one cycle, f = 1/T. The unit of frequency is the hertz, where one
cycle/s is one hertz (Hz).
The displacement (x or y) is the distance of the vibrating object from its equilibrium position (normal
rest position), i.e., from the center of its vibration path. The maximum displacement is called the
amplitude.
The graph of a vibratory motion depicts the up-and-down oscillation of a mass at the end of a
spring. One complete cycle, is from a to b or from c to d or from e to f. The time taken for one cycle is
T, the period.

In the figure, the amplitude is how far the oscillation can be from its rest position (y=0). The T shows
one Hertz (frequency), and the period. The period is the time it took for one complete cycle, while the
frequency is how many vibrations – how many oscillations – happened in a given time.
Restoring force is defined as the opposite of the displacement. It is the force that forces the system
to come back to equilibrium (sort of like friction).
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) is the vibratory motion which a system that obeys Hooke’s Law
undergoes.
A Hookean System (springs, wires, rods, etc.) is one that returns to its original configuration after
being distorted and then released. Moreover, Hooke’s Law states that the force needed to extend or
compress a spring by some distance scales linearly with respect to that distance.
F=−kx
The negative sign indicates that the restoring force is opposite in direction to stretching the system.
The spring constant k has a unit of N/m, a measure of the stiffness of the spring.
It is sometimes important to express Hooke’s Law in terms of F ext (external force) needed to stretch
the spring at a given amount x. This is negative of the restoring force, so
F ext =kx

The Elastic Potential Energy stored in a Hookean spring (PEe) that is distorted in a distance x is
1
PE e = k x 2
2
If the amplitude of motion is x0 for a mass at the end of a spring, then the energy of the vibrating
system is always 1/2kx02. However, this energy is completely stored in the spring only when x=± x 0,
that is, when the mass has its maximum displacement.
Energy Interchange between kinetic and potential energy occurs constantly in a vibrating system.
When the system passes through its equilibrium position, KE = maximum and PE e = 0. When the
system has maximum amplitude, then KE = 0 and PEe = maximum. From the law of conservation of
energy, in the absence of friction-type losses, KE and PE e is constant.
For a mass m at the end of a spring (with the mass of the spring is negligible), this becomes
1 1 1
m v 2+ k x 2= k x 02
2 2 2
Where x0 is the amplitude of the motion.
Density and Elasticity
The Mass Density (ρ) of a material is its mass per unit volume:
mass of body m
ρ= =
volume of body V
The SI unit for mass density is kg/m3, sometimes g/cm3. Remember that 1000 kg/m3 = 1 g/cm3. The
density of water is close to 1000 kg/m3.
The Specific Gravity (sp. gr.) of a substance is the ratio of the density of the substance to the
density of some standard substance. The standard is usually water (at 4°C) for liquids and solids,
while for gases, it’s usually air.
ρ
sp gr =
ρstandard

Since sp gr is a dimensionless ratio, it has the same value for all systems of unit.
Elasticity is the property by which a body returns to its original size and shape when the forces that
deformed it are removed.
The stress (δ) experienced within a solid is the magnitude of the force acting (F), divided by the area
(A) over which it acts:
force F
Stress= =δ=
area A
The SI unit for stress is Pa, where 1 Pa = 1 N/m2.
Strain (ε) is the fractional deformation resulting from stress. It is measured as the ratio of the change
in some dimension of a body to the original dimension in which the change occurred.
change∈dimension change∈length ∆ l
Strain= =ε= =
original dimension initial length l0

Strain has no unit, since it is a ratio.

The Elastic Limit is the smallest stress that will produce a permanent distortion in the body.
Stress = pressure caused by stretching
Strain = how much the body has changed after stretching it (compared to before)
Elastic Limit = the amount of stress that will cause permanent distortion to the body (where it will not
go back to its original dimensions)
Young’s Modulus (Y) or the modulus of elasticity is defined as (with the same units as stress)
 F
stress δ A F l0
Y= = = =
strain ε ∆ l A ∆ l
l0

The Bulk Modulus (B) describes the volume The Shear Modulus (S) describes the shape
elasticity of a material. Bulk Modulus is defined elasticity of a material. Shearing (or cutting a
as the elasticity on the volume of a body. material) changes its elasticity.

Fluids at Rest
The Average Pressure on a surface of area A is found as force divided by area, where it is stipulated
that the force must be perpendicular (normal) to the area.
normal force acting on an area F
Average Pressure= =P=
area A
the force isdistributed
which
The SI unit for the given is Pa. 1 Pa = 1 N/m2.
Standard Atmospheric Pressure is 1.01 x 105 Pa, equivalent to 14.7 psi. Other units are as follows:
1 atmosphere (atm) = 1.013 x 105 Pa
1 torr = 1mm of mercury (mmHg) = 133.32 Pa
1 psi (lb/in2) = 6.895 kPa = 6895 Pa
The Hydrostatic Pressure due to a column of fluid of height h and mass density ρ is P = ρgh
Pascal’s Principle: When the pressure on any part of a confined fluid (liquid or gas) is changed, the
pressure on every other part of the fluid is also changed by the same amount.
Archimedes’ Principle: A body wholly or partly immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to
the weight of the fluid it displaces.
F B=buoyant force=weight of displaced fluid

The buoyant force on an object of volume V that is totally immersed in a fluid of density ρf is ρfVg, and
the weight of the object is ρ0Vg, where ρ0 is the density of the object. Therefore, the net upward force
on the submerged object is
F net ( upward )=Vg( ρ f − ρ0)

Fluids in Motion
Fluid Flow or Discharge (J): When a fluid fills a pipe through the pipe with an average speed v, the
flow or discharge J is
J = Av
where A is the cross-sectional area of the pipe. The units of J are m 3/s in SI and ft3/s in US units.
Sometimes, J is called the rate of flow or the discharge rate.
Equation of Continuity: Suppose an incompressible (constant-density) fluid fills a pipe and flows
through it. Suppose further that the cross-sectional area of the pipe is A 1 at one point and A2 at
another. Since the flow through A1 must equal the flow through A2, one has
J = A1v1 = A2v2 = constant
The Shear Rate of a fluid is the rate at which the shear strain within the fluid is changing. Because
strain has no units, the unit for shear rate is s-1.
The Viscosity (η) of a fluid is a measure of how large a shear stress is required to produce unit shear
rate. The SI unit for viscosity is stress per unit shear rate, or Pa-s, N-s/m 2 (or kg/m-s), called the
poiseulle (PI). 1 PI = 1 kg/m-s = 1 Pa-s. Another unit is the poise (P), where 1 P = 0.1 PI, and the
centipoise (cP) where 1 cP = 1x10-3 PI.
Poiseuille’s Law: The fluid flow through a cylindrical pipe of length L and cross-sectional radius R is
given by:

π R 4 ( Pi −P o)
J=
8η L
where Pi−Po is the pressure difference between the two ends of the pipe (input minus output).
The Work done by a piston in forcing a volume V of fluid into a cylinder against an opposing
pressure P is given by PV.
The work done by a pressure P acting on a surface of area A as the surface moves through a
distance ∆x normal to the surface (thereby displacing a volume A∆x =∆V) is
W =PA ∆ x=P ∆ V
Bernoulli’s Equation states that an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs simultaneously with a
decrease in static pressure or a decrease in the fluid’s potential energy.
1 1
P1 + ρ v 12+ h1 ρg=P2 + ρ v 22+ h2 ρg
2 2
Wherein h is the height, P is the pressure, ρ is the density, g is the gravitational constant, and v is the
velocity of the water.
Torricelli’s Theorem states that the speed v of a liquid flowing under the force of gravity out of an
opening in a tank is proportional jointly to the square root of the vertical distance h between the liquid
surface and the centre of the opening and to the square root of twice the acceleration caused by
gravity.
v=√ 2 gh
The Reynolds Number (NR) is a dimensionless number that applies to a fluid of viscosity η and
density ρ flowing with speed v through a pipe (or past an obstacle) with diameter D:
ρvD
N R=
η
Thermal Physics
Temperature is related to the average kinetic energy of the particles (atoms or molecules) that
constitute a substance or material. It is a measure of the ability of a substance, or any physical
system, to transfer heat energy to another physical system.
Internal Energy is the sum total of all energies internal to a substance.
Heat is the internal energy-in-transit. It is the amount of energy transferred to a system of particles.
Once inside the body, it is internal energy. When the internal energy is in the process of being
transferred from one body to another, due to difference in their temperatures, it is heat. The kinetic
energy of the particles in the body is the temperature.
Thermodynamics is a science and engineering tool used to describe processes that involve changes
in temperature, transformation of energy, and the relationships between heat and work.
The Laws of Thermodynamics:
1. If two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third, they are also in thermal equilibrium
with each other.
Two bodies in thermal equilibrium are at the same temperature.
2. The internal energy of an isolated system is constant.
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
∆ E=q+ w
3. Heat cannot spontaneously flow from a colder location to a hotter location.
The total entropy of the Universe must increase in every spontaneous process.
∆ S ( total )=∆ S ( system )+ ∆ S ( surroundings ) >0
4. As a system approaches absolute zero, all processes cease and the entropy of the system
approaches a minimum value.
The entropy (S) of a pure, perfectly crystalline compound at T = 0K is zero.
Calorimetry: Foods contain different amounts of carbohydrates, fat, and protein. These contain
varying amounts of calories per gram, which gives the body energy to do work.
Carbohydrates contain 4kcal/gram (4 kilocalories or 4000 calories in one gram), fat with 9kcal/g, and
protein with 4kcal/gram.
Thermal Expansion
Thermal Expansion is the tendency of matter to change its dimension in response to a change in
temperature.
Change in length of a solid ∆L = L0α∆T
Change in area of a solid ∆A = A02α∆T
Change in volume of a solid or liquid ∆V = V0Β∆T

Wherein α = coefficient of linear expansion

B = coefficient of volumetric expansion (B = 3α for solids)
Expansion coefficients for some common materials

Specific Heat Capacity is the ratio of the energy transferred and the change in temperature. It is the
measurable physical quantity that characterizes the amount of heat required to change a body’s
temperature by a given amount (measured in Joules/Kelvin).
Q
C=
∆T
Specific Heat tells how fast or slow a material heats up or cools down. It is the amount of heat
needed to change the temperature of a unit substance by 1°C (unit: calorie per gram Celsius degree).
Q=mc ∆ T
Latent Heat of Transformation: The heat energy acquired or released when a material changes
phase. It is the energy given out or absorbed by a system without change in temperature.
Q=mL
where Q = heat
m = mass
L = latent heat of fusion or vaporization of the substance or material
Latent Heat of Fusion is the heat energy required to completely melt/solidify one kg of substance.
Latent Heat of Vaporization is the heat energy required to completely evaporate/condense 1kg of a

substance.

Heat Transfer
Conduction is the transfer of internal energy when two objects at different temperatures are placed
in contact. Heat travels at different rates in different materials. The quantity of heat transferred per
unit time is given by:

Q (T h−T c ) k = thermal conductivity

H= =kA
t L A = cross-sectional area
L = length/thickness of the object
Th = higher temperature at one end Tc = lower temperature at the other end

Convection is the transfer of internal energy into or out of an object by the actual/physical movement
of the mass of surrounding fluid. Can either be spontaneous or forced.
Heat Loss due to Forced Convection: given by the following equation called Newton’s Law of
Cooling.
dQ
P= =hA(T −T 0)
dt
P = dQ/dt, rate at which heat is transferred
h = convection coefficient
A = exposed surface area
T = temperature of the immersed object
T0 = temperature of convecting fluid
Radiation is energy transfer by the emission of electromagnetic waves which carry energy away from
the emitting object.
Ionizing Radiation is radiation that has sufficient energy to remove electrons from atoms.
Non-Ionizing radiation refers to any type of electromagnetic radiation that does not carry enough
energy per quantum to ionize atoms or molecules (to remove an electron from an atom or molecule.)
Radiative Heat transfer is given by the equation called Stefan-Boltzmann Law, which relates the
heat flow rate emitted or absorbed from an object to its temperature (ands surface area and
darkness.)

P=εδA (T 4 −T 0 4)

P = net heat flow rate (W) emitted (+) or absorbed (-)

ε = emissivity, a dimensionless and unitless measure of a material’s effective ability to emit or absorb
thermal radiation from its surface.
δ = Stefan constant, 5.670x10-8 W/m2K4
A = surface area
T = absolute temperature (K) of the object emitting or absorbing thermal radiation
T0 = absolute temperature (K) of the environment
Electromagnetism
Electric Charge, basic property of matter carried by some elementary particles that governs how the
particles are affected by an electric or magnetic field. Electric charge, which can be positive or
negative, occurs in discrete natural units and is neither created nor destroyed.
Conductors are materials where charges can easily flow through. Common examples of conductors
are tap water, human body and metals in general.
Insulators inhibit the flow of electric charges. The charges stay where they are put. Examples of this
are glass, chemically pure water and plastics.
Hall Effect shows that it is the negative charges (electrons) that are free to move.
Conduction/Free electrons are the outer electron that do not remain attached to the individual
atoms of a material but become free to wander about within the rigid lattice structure formed by the
immobile positively charged ion cores.
Semiconductors, such as germanium and silicon are materials that are intermediate between
conductors and insulators. Their outermost valence electron is 4. One property of it that makes them
so useful is that the density of conducting electrons can be drastically changed by small changes in
the conditions of the material, or by varying the amount of applied voltage, temperature, or the
intensity of light incident on the material.
Charge of one electron is -1.6 x 10-19 coulombs.
Charge of one proton is +1.6 x 10-19 coulombs.
Coulomb’s Law generally holds only for charged objects whose sizes are much smaller than the
distance between them. We often say that it only holds for point charges. It states that “The force of
attraction or repulsion between two charges is proportional to both of the charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance that separates them”.
k q1 q2
F=
r2
Where k = 9x109 Nm2/C2
q1 and q2 = the charges
r = distance between the charges
Electrical Field: An imaginary region around an electric charge where electrical forces exists. It is a
force field that exists whenever an electric force acts on a charge. The electric field E at a point in
space is therefore defined as the ratio between the force F on a charge q at that point and the
magnitude of q.
F
E=
q
Using Coulomb’s Law to determine the magnitude of the electric field around a single charge Q, the
force F that Q exerts upon a test charge q at the distance r is determined as:
kQq
F e=
r2
Electricity: a general term encompassing a variety of phenomena resulting form the presence and
flow of electric charge.
Voltage (V) refers to the difference in electric potential energy between two points in a wire or space.
Such represents the work involved or the energy released in the transfer of a unit quantity of
electricity, against the electric field, from point A to point B. Simply put, voltage is equal to the amount
of work done per unit charge.
W
V=
q
1 volt = 1 joule per coulomb
Electric Current (I) is defined as a flow of electric charge through a medium. This flowing electric
charge is typically carried by “energized” moving electrons in a conductor such as wire. It can also be
carried by ions in an electrolyte. The SI unit for measuring the rate of flow of electric charge is the
ampere (A). Mathematically defined, electric current refers to the amount of charge flowing through a
conductor per unit time. Measured at the rate of coulomb per second.
q
I=
t
1 ampere = 1 coulomb per second
1 ampere = 6.24 x 1018 electrons per second
Electrical Resistance (R)(Ω) is a measure of friction or opposition to the surge/flow of changes
(current).
Classifications:
1. Resistance offered by the conducting wire
2. Resistance of any electrical load = those that consumes energy thus affecting the flow of
charges.
Conductance (G)(Ω-1) is the reciprocal of resistance: the measure of how easy it is for electric
current to flow through a wire or something else. The SI unit now used for conductance is siemens
(S).
Ohm’s Law states that ““at a constant temperature, the electrical current or flow of charges through a
fixed linear resistance is directly proportional to the voltage applied across it, and also inversely
proportional to the resistance.

V =IR

where V = Voltage
I = Current
R = Resistance

Factors Affecting a Wire’s Resistance:

1. Length of Wire: RαL
2. Cross-sectional area: R 1/α A
3. Resistivity or Nature of the material the wire is made of: Rαρ
4. Temperature: RαT
ρL
Rwire = Rnew =R old [1+ α ∆ T ]
A
Electrical Power (P) in a circuit is the rate at which energy is absorbed or produced within a circuit. A
source of energy such as a voltage will produce or deliver power while the connected load absorbs it.
Light bulbs and heaters for example, absorb electrical power and convert it into either heat, or light, or
both. The higher their value or rating in watts (wattage),the more electrical energy they are likely to
consume in a given time.
By using Ohm’s law and substituting for the values of V, I, and R, the formulas for electrical power are

2 V2
P=VI =I R=
R
Electrical Circuits are defined as the complete path of an electric current.