Thermo - (Ses 15) - Content

THERMODYNAMICS
UNIT I
ENERGY AND ITS TRANSFORMATION
Overview
Every living thing and dynamic process in nature involves the conversion of energy
from one form to another. These transformations are essential for powering the machines that
man builds and uses. They cause ocean currents, rain, wind, temperature variations, and all
other phenomena related to the earth’s climate. (Aquino, et al., 2012)
Figure 1.1: The

many forms of
energy
Source: https://www.freepik.com/
Perhaps the most critical concepts in science are those related to energy. These are
different forms of energy like the energy an object has because of its motion or its elevation
above the earth; the energy of a compressed or stretched spring; the energy of positive and
negative electric charges when separated; the thermal energy of hot substances; the mass
energy of nuclei on the sun; the chemical energy of glucose molecule; and so forth (Aquino, et
al., 2012).
In this chapter, you will understand the concept of energy and its transformation from
one form to another. We will begin the study of this topic by understanding work and how it is
related to the kinetic energy of a body. We will move on trying to understand the principle of
conservation of energy.
At the end of the unit, I am able to:
1. relate and differentiate force, work, energy, and power;

2. calculate the work done on a body when the force is constant, and the body
undergoes a specified displacement;
3. distinguish potential energy as the energy of position from kinetic energy as the
energy of objects in motion;
4. distinguish between conservative and non-conservative forces; and
5. write the equations and eventually solve problems on work, power, and energy.
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THERMODYNAMICS
Activating Your Prior Knowledge
Study the illustration. Make a story linking work, power, and energy by following the
interconnection among these three concepts. Relate the three ideas to thermodynamics.
Figure 1.2: The interconnection of work, power, and energy
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THERMODYNAMICS
Expanding Your Knowledge
1.1 WORK
Identify which case below exhibits work done on the object.
1. Pushing a cart from one side of the room, all the way across to the other side.
2. Placing a basket on your head and walking across the room.
3. Lifting a book from the floor to the top of your head.
Does the amount of work have something to do with how tired you get in performing a
task? How does one really solve for the amount of work done? Work is something we do every
day, but having to define it is difficult. It is a good thing that we are already familiar with the
concepts of force and displacement because those are two crucial components of work.
The equation for work (W) is given as:
𝐖 = 𝐅𝐧𝐞𝐭 𝐝𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉
where,
W = work (joules or Nm)

F = magnitude of the net force (newton)
d = magnitude of the displacement (meters)
𝜃 = angle between the applied force and displacement
In this way, we can then say that work is the product of the applied force and the
displacement it covers after applying that force. A component of the force must be parallel to
the direction of the motion; otherwise, no work is done. Let’s look at the following cases:
1. In the situation shown in Figure 1.3, we can see that the force of
the man (Fman) is directed towards the right and that the wooden
crate also moves to the right. This is a case wherein the force is
completely parallel to the displacement, and thus, the angle (𝜃) is
zero. The value of cos 0o = 1. The work equation is simplified to
Source:https://www.freepik.com/ 𝑾𝒎𝒂𝒏 = 𝑭𝒎𝒂𝒏 𝒅.
Figure 1.3: Pushing a This simplified work equation is usually the most common
wooden crate equation to describe work even though it is not always the
correct equation to use. Remember that the only time this W = Fd
equation can be used is when the force is entirely parallel to the
displacement.
Source:https://www.freepik.com/
2. As the box is being pushed towards the right, a friction force (F fric)
is acting on the box towards the left (see Figure 1.4). In this case,
the value of 𝜃 is 180o, and thus, cos 180o = -1. The work equation
now becomes 𝑾𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒄 = −𝑭𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒅. This means friction does
negative work on the box, and the result is that the box is slowed
down by friction.
If we want to find out the total work being done on the box
Figure 1.4: The force of by both forces of the man and friction, all we need to do is add
friction must be
overcome first before Wman and Wfric:
any change in position Wman + Wfric = Fmand + (-Ffricd)
can take place. = (Fman – Ffric) d
Work is a scalar quantity, and thus, no direction is
considered when adding the work done by individual force.
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THERMODYNAMICS
3. What if you needed to raise a dumbbell from the floor to shoulder

height (see Figure 1.5)? In what direction is your force? Upward.
What is the direction of the displacement? Also, upward. So,
Wman = Fmand
Source: https://www.lamudi.com.ph/journal/filipino- Is there a force in the opposite direction? Yes! There is the
athletes-sea-games-2019/
gravitational force. The work being done by gravity is downward
Figure 1.5: Work is even if the displacement is upward and so this is expressed as
also done vertically Wgrav = -Fgrav d.
or against gravity
Again, the total work done in bringing the dumbbell from
the floor to shoulder height is
Wman + Wgrav = Fmand + (-Fgravd)
= (Fman – Fgrav) d
What is the work done when the dumbbell if kept at
shoulder height? The work done in this case is zero because there
is no displacement. This means that though the man may get tired
as he holds the dumbbell in place, he is not doing any work on it.
4. Let us try one more situation. If you were to place a book on your
head and walk from your home to school, how much work would
Source:https://www.canstockphoto.com/balancing-a- you be doing in the book?
stack-of-books-on-head-5267425.html
Figure 1.6: No work Based on Figure 1.6, the force exerted by your head on the
book is upward while your displacement is to the right. This means
the force and displacement are perpendicular to each other, so 𝜃 is 90o.
W = Fmandcos 𝜃
= Fmandcos 900
= Fmand (0)
This means that though you may be exerting a force and you are covering quite a
distance from your home to school, you are still doing NO WORK on the book.
Now let’s apply the discussed equation to solve work-related problems.
1. At angle 50.00, calculate the work done if the force applied is 45.0 N and the
displacement is 75.0m.
Given: F = 45.0 N d = 75.0 m
𝜃 = 50.0 0
Find: W
Solution: W = Fd cosθ
= (45.0 N)(75.0m)(cos 50.00)
= 2170 J
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THERMODYNAMICS
2. For a distance of 5 m, a 50 kg mass crate is moved along a floor with a force of 20 N.

Calculate the work done.
Given: F = 20 N d=5m
Find: W
Solution: W = Fd cosθ (since the force applied is completely parallel to the

displacement of the crate; thus, the angle is zero, cos 0 is equal to 1.)
W = Fd
= (20 N) (5 m)
= 100 J
Note: The given mass of crate is not required to answer the problem. It is only needed
if we calculate the work done by lifting the crate but not by pushing it.
3. How far does a 5N force need to pull a 50 g toy car if it transfers 30J of energy?
Given: F = 5N W= 30J
Find: d
Solution: W = Fd (from the given formula derived the formula for displacement)
d = W/F
= 30 J/5 N
=6m
4. A man exerts a force of 2000N on a boulder but fails to move it. Calculate the work
done.
Given: F = 2000N d = 0, since the boulder does not move
Find: W
Solution: W = Fd
= 2000N (0)
=0
No work is done if the object does not move when the force is applied. It is only
done if the object travels.
Try to pull your schoolbag with a force of 30 N parallel to the ground towards your
classroom 20 m away. How much work will you do on your bag?
A 130 N force is applied on the handle of a lawnmower. The handle makes an angle
of 500 with the ground as the lawnmower moves across the ground. Determine the
following:
a. the magnitude of the component of the force acting in the direction of

motion.
b. the work done by this force if the lawnmower is pushed 15m across the
ground.
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THERMODYNAMICS
1.2 TYPES OF ENERGY
Energy is the capacity to do work. The greater the energy of a body, the greater is its
capacity to perform any work. This means that whatever work is done on an object, it gains
enough energy. If one (1) newton-meter of work is done, the object gains one (1) newton-
meter of energy.
The energy may be stored by the object in a variety of forms.
Kinetic Energy is the energy possessed by an object by virtue of its motion. Examples
of objects with kinetic energy include a moving car, a bullet in motion, a stream of flowing
water, or a revolving flywheel.
The equation used to solve for kinetic energy is
𝟏
𝑲𝑬 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝟐
where,
KE = kinetic energy (joules or Nm, J)

m = mass (kg)
v = magnitude of velocity (m/s)
Since mass is never negative and v2 will always yield a positive result, kinetic energy
has only two values: zero and positive. Kinetic energy is zero when the object is at rest and
positive when the object is in motion.
The work done on an object may be manifested as a change in the kinetic energy of the
object.
W = ∆𝑲𝑬 = KEfinal(f) – KEinitial(i)
𝟏 𝟏
= 𝒎𝒗𝟐 f − 𝒎𝒗𝟐 i
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏
= 𝒎(𝒗𝒇 𝟐 − 𝒗𝒊 𝟐 )
𝟐
Gravitational Potential Energy is the energy possessed by an object because of its

position (vertical separation from the earth). For instance, a pile of books on top of the table, a
stone hoisted to the top of a building, a car parked on a ramp possess more ability to do work
than they had when they were at ground level.
The same box is placed in three different positions – on top of the mountain, on the
floor, and in a deep well. To compute for the gravitational potential energy of the box, we must
first define a reference point. Let’s consider the floor as the reference point. This means the
height from the floor must be 0 m. Anything above the floor is positive, and anything below the
floor is negative.
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THERMODYNAMICS
Gravitational potential energy is energy that depends on the height of an object

relative to a reference point. It is computed as:
GPE = mgh
where,
GPE = gravitational potential energy (joules or Nm, J)

m = mass (kg)
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2)
h = height relative to the reference point (m)
The box placed on top of the mountain has positive gravitational potential energy
while the one in the well has negative gravitational potential energy. The one on the floor has
zero gravitational potential energy. This shows that even if an object is at rest, it may still have
no gravitational potential energy because it is at the reference point. Gravitational potential
energy may then have three different values: negative, positive, or zero.
Internal Energy is the atomic and molecular energy of matter consisting of (1) the
kinetic energy of the atoms and molecules due to their random motion (called Thermal
Energy) and (2) the energy atoms and molecules have as a result of their bonds and
interaction with each other.
The force of gravity and the force exerted by an ideal spring are called conservative
forces, whereas the force of friction is a non-conservative force. In other words, if the force
can be expressed in terms only of position, not of velocity or time, we call this force a
conservative force. A conservative force may be associated with a scalar potential energy
function, whereas a non-conservative force cannot. (Aquino, et al., 2012)
1.3 WORK-ENERGY CALCULATIONS
WORK AND CHANGE IN KINETIC ENERGY
You have learned from previous lessons that work and energy are interrelated. The
total work done by the force, as an object moves, equals the change in its Kinetic Energy (KE).
From Newton’s second law,
∆𝐾𝐸 =W
= F · ∆𝑑
𝒗𝒇 𝟐 −𝒗𝒊𝟐
= (𝑚 𝑎)
2𝑎
1 𝟏
= m (𝒗𝒇 𝟐 − 𝒗𝒊 𝟐 ) or simply, KE = 𝒎𝒗𝟐
2 𝟐
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THERMODYNAMICS
Examples:
1. What is the kinetic energy of a 7500 N automobile, which is moving at 55m/s?

Given: W = 7500 N v = 55m/s
Find: KE
Solution: Find the mass using the equation W = mg

m = W/g = 7500 N/9.8m/s2
m = 765kg
𝟏
KE = 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝟐
1
= (765 𝑘𝑔)(55𝑚/𝑠)2
2
= 1.16x106 J
2. A 0.10 kg stone is thrown from the edge of an ocean cliff with an initial speed of 20m/s.
when it strikes the water below, it is traveling at 45m/s. What is the change in the
kinetic energy of the stone?
Given: vf = 45m/s
v0 = 20m/s
m = 0.10 kg
Find: ∆𝑲𝑬
1
Solution: ∆𝐾𝐸 = m (𝒗𝒇 𝟐 − 𝒗𝒊 𝟐 )
2
1
= (0.10kg)[(452 – 202)]m2/s2
2
= 81.25 J
WORK AND CHANGE IN GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY
Whenever work is done on an object that changes its elevation (vertical distance), the
work done is equivalent to the Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE) gained by the object.
Thus,
∆𝐺𝑃𝐸 = W
= F· ∆d
= mg· ∆h
= mg (hf – hi) or simply, GPE = mgh
Examples:
1. A 400kg roller coaster cart is 48m above the ground. Calculate the change in potential
energy of the car.
Given: m = 400kg hi = 48m hf = 3m
Find: ∆𝑮𝑷𝑬
Solution:
∆𝑮𝑷𝑬 = mg (hf – hi)
= (400 kg)(9.8m/s2)(3m – 48m)
= -176,400 J
Note: The negative sign denotes that the movement of the object is downward.
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THERMODYNAMICS
2. A football of mass 2.5 kg is lifted up to the top of a cliff that is 180m high. How much
gravitational potential energy does the football gain?
Given: m = 2.5 kg h= 180m g = 9.8m/s2
Find: GPE
Solution: GPE = mgh

= (2.5 kg)(9.8m/s2)(180m)
= 4410 J
Physics Trivia
A Scientist for All seasons!
James Prescott Joule (1818-1889) was born in
Saltford, England, near Manchester. For years, he studied
the nature of heat and discovered the relationship
between heat and mechanical work. Besides his scientific
contributions, Joule also invented electrical welding and
the displacement pump.
He spent his honeymoon near s waterfall. During
his honeymoon, Joule measured with great accuracy the
temperature of the water at the top of the falls and at
the bottom after the water has dashed unto the rocks
below.
This and other experiments eventually led to the
very important establishment of the First Law of
Thermodynamics (or the Conservation of Energy
Theorem). Such devotion to physics surely deserves a unit
named in Joule’s honor.
Joule died at home in Sale and is buried there. On
his gravestone, the number “772.55” is inscribed. This is his
last measurement of the mechanical equivalent of heat.
1.4 POWER
What is your concept of power? Does it mean exerting more force, more energy, doing
more work, or something else?
In Figure 1.7, the same machines were

illustrated, but which do you think between the two
hand drills will do more work in 1 hour? Both hand
drills will do work, but work outputs are different.
Figure 1.7: Manual and Electric Hand Drills
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THERMODYNAMICS
This means that machines differ in their speed of work. The rate of doing work is called
power and is represented by the equation,
𝐰𝐨𝐫𝐤 𝐝𝐨𝐧𝐞
𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 =
𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞
𝐅𝐝
𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 =
𝐭
but;
𝐝
̅s
=𝒗
𝐭
Therefore, 𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 = 𝑭 𝐯̅s

where,
F = force applied on the object
d = displacement
t = time taken to do the work
v̅s = average speed
The equation shows that the unit of power is the combination of those of work and time.
In the SI system, power is expressed as J/s or watt, W (named after James Watt, who discovered
the steam engine). This unit is widely used for measuring the rate at which an electric light bulb
changes electrical energy into light energy. In the English system, power is expressed as
horsepower (hp). It is widely used to express the power of large machines. The earliest use of
steam engines was to pump water from mines. This work had previously been done by horses,
so the power of any given engine or machine was estimated as equal to that of so many horses.
(Navaza and Valdes, 2011)
The conversion factors for the units of power are:
1 hp = 746 watts
1 kW = 1000 watts
Examples:
1. Calculate the power output in watts and horsepower of an 80.0kg man who climbs a
flight of stairs 3.8 m high in 4.0 s.
Given: m = 80.0 kg
h = 3.8 m
t = 4.0 s
Find: Power
𝐅𝐝
Solution: 𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 =
𝐭
F = w = mg
d=h
𝐦𝐠𝐡
∴ Power =
𝐭
(𝟖𝟎.𝟎 𝐤𝐠)(𝟗.𝟖𝐦/𝒔𝟐 )(𝟑.𝟖𝐦)

=
𝟒.𝟎 𝐬
= 744.8 watts
𝟏𝐡𝐩
Power = 744.8 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 𝑥 = 0.998 hp or 1.0 hp
𝟕𝟒𝟔 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔
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THERMODYNAMICS
2. A car is traveling at a constant velocity of 100.0 km/h on the skyway. What is the power
output of the car engine if the total air resistance and friction between road and tires is
750 N?
Given:
v = 100.0 km/h
f = 750 N F
total air resistance
forward force caused
by the engine
Find: Power
Solution: 𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 = 𝑭 𝐯̅s

= 750 N (100.0km/h)
= 750 N (27.78 m/s)
= 20.83 kW
= 21 kW
Convert the following:
a. 220 W = _________kW
b. 1.5 hp = _________W
c. 6.5 kW = ________ hp
A small electric motor is used to lift a 100 N water to a tank 4 m above the ground in
10 s. Calculate the useful power output of the motor.
1.5 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
The work-energy theorem then leads to the principle of the conservation of mechanical
energy. The idea that the motion of an object is governed by something that does not change
had its origin in the pendulum experiments of Galileo. (Aquino, et al., 2012)
According to the Law of Conservation of Total Mechanical Energy, the total mechanical
energy of an object must be conserved among all the different positions the object may be.
The law of conservation of energy can be expressed as
∆𝑲𝑬 + ∆𝑷𝑬 = 𝟎
that is, the energy can be changed into different forms, but the total energy of the system is
constant.
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THERMODYNAMICS
In order for the Law of Conservation of Total Mechanical Energy to hold true, it is
necessary to make sure the system under consideration does not contain any frictional forces or
special forces like the push force.
In solving problems regarding the conservation of mechanical energy, it is important to

identify two different positions of the object and recognize the types of energy present in each
of the positions. The reference points used when computing for the potential energies must be
consistent all throughout the solutions to the problem.
Kinetic energy is zero when the object is not moving. Gravitational potential energy is
zero when the object is at the reference point.
1.6 APPLICATIONS OF ENERGY PRINCIPLES
Physical education is a subject students usually like. Its primary goal is to provide
students with knowledge, skills, and enthusiasm to maintain a healthy lifestyle through the
development of motor skills. Students learn to work as part of a team or as individuals in
competitive activities.
In activities like basketball, a force must be applied to pass the ball to a teammate. In
relay games that include pushing objects, strategies must be employed to ensure the best result
– parallel push on the object.
It is important to bring with you physical concepts as you engage in such activities to
reach full potential. Whether you are engaged in ball games or dancing, the concepts of force
and displacement can determine the amount of work being done.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WSY4HzWZIlo
Video Presentation https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IqV5L66EP2E
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THERMODYNAMICS
Synthesizing Your Knowledge
ACTIVITY 1
Directions: Encircle the letter of the best answer.
1. A job is done slowly while an identical job is done quickly. Both require the same
amount of work, but different amount of _______.
a. Energy c. Both of these
b. Power d. None of these
2. If a 1000 kg car and a 2000kg car are hoisted the same distance in a gas station, raising
the heavier car requires _______.
a. Less work c. Twice as much work
b. As much work d. Four times as much work
3. An object that has potential energy must be ______.

a. Speed c. Momentum
b. Acceleration d. Location
4. An object that has kinetic energy must be _______.

a. Moving c. At an elevated position
b. Falling d. At rest
5. A woman lifted a box from the floor. She then moves with constant speed to the other
side of the room, where she puts the box down. How much work does she do on the box
while walking across the floor at a constant speed?
a. 0 J
b. More information is needed to determine the work done
c. Positive work
d. Less than 0 J
6. Which requires the most amount of work on the brakes of a car?

a. Slowing down from 100km/h to 70km/h
b. Slowing down from 70km/h to a stop
c. Equal amount for either a or b
d. Starting the car
7. Which requires more work: Lifting a 50kg sack vertically 2 meters or lifting a 25kg sack
vertically 4 meters?
a. Lifting the 50kg sack
b. Lifting the 25kg sack
c. Both require the same amount of work
d. None, because both are not work
8. A flowerpot of mass (m) drops from rest to the ground below. It covers a distance (h).
Which statement is true?
a. The speed of the pot when it hits the ground is proportional to h.
b. The KE of the pot when it hits the ground is proportional to h.
c. The KE of the pot, when it hits the ground, does not depend on m.
d. The KE of the pot when it hits the ground depends on m.
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THERMODYNAMICS
9. Strictly speaking, if any electrical device in your car is turned on (such as air
conditioner, headlights, or even a radio), more gasoline is burned by the engine. This
statement is ______.
a. Totally false
b. Always true
c. True only if the car’s engine is moving
d. True only if the car’s engine is stopped
10. A conservative force may be associated with ______.

a. Force of friction c. power
b. Scalar PE d. KE
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THERMODYNAMICS
ACTIVITY 2
Directions: Solve the following problems. Show you complete solutions and box the final
answer.
1. A loaded cart has a total mass of 227kg. If a 312N force acting at an angle of 300 to the
ground is applied, how much work is done in moving the cart 15m?
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2. How much Kinetic Energy has a cricket ball of 160g when hurled at a pace of 22m/s?
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THERMODYNAMICS
3. A box with a mass of 5.8 kg. The box is lifted from the garage floor and placed on a shelf.
If the box gains 145 J of Potential Energy, how high is the shelf?
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4. A man climbs on to a wall that is 3.6 m high and gains 2268J of potential energy. What is
the mass of the man?
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THERMODYNAMICS
5. An 800g ball is pulled up a slope, as shown in the diagram. Calculate the Potential
Energy it gains.
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THERMODYNAMICS
ACTIVITY 3
Directions: Apply what you know.
Create a poster depicting the slogan: Energy: the Force of Life. Focus on the concept of
conservation of energy. How can recycling plastic containers help to conserve energy and avoid
an energy crisis in our society?
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THERMODYNAMICS
REFERENCES
Book
Aquino, Marites D., Abistado, Jonna M. and Forteza, Rex S. (2012). Science Links (Physics).
Manila, Philippines: Rex Book Store, Inc.
Catchillar, G.C. and Malenab, R.G. (2003). Fundamentals of Physics. Manila, Philippines: National
Bookstore, Inc.
Navaza, D.C. and Valdes, B.J. (2011). You and the Natural World (Physics). Quezon Avenue,
Quezon City: Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.
Tillery, Bill W. (1992). Introduction to Physics and Chemistry. Brown Publishers.
Webliography
 https://www.freepik.com/(Retrived: 7/15/2020; 10:30 PM)

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WSY4HzWZIlo ( Retrieved: 7/16/2020; 9:30 PM)
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IqV5L66EP2E (Retrieved: 7/17/2020; 8:30 PM)
 https://www.lamudi.com.ph/journal/filipino-athletes-sea-games-2019/( Retrieved:
7/17/2020; 8:35 PM)
 https://www.canstockphoto.com/balancing-a-stack-of-books-on-head-5267425.html
(Retrieved: 7/18/2020; 9:30 PM)
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THERMODYNAMICS
UNIT II
THERMAL ENERGY, TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
Overview
Heat and temperature are two different concepts but are related to each other.
Temperature is usually associated with heat. The difference between heat and temperature is
often confusing that it has been a source of misconceptions among students, especially in the
way the terms are used (Aquino, et al., 2012).
The heat content of a body will depend on its temperature, its mass, and the material it
is made of. Heat energy is always transferred from an object at high temperature to one at a
lower temperature. Temperature is not the same as heat. Temperature measures the degree of
hotness of a body (“how hot”). It doesn’t depend on the mass or the material of an object
(Aquino, et al., 2012).
Figure 2.1: Common

temperature changes
Heat is one of the main topics in thermodynamics. In this chapter, you will learn that
heat is a form of energy. You will also learn about the properties of heat. One of them is that it
can flow and can be transferred (Navaza and Valdes, 2011).

1. define and relate the terms temperature, heat, and thermal energy;
2. differentiate the three common temperature scales and the types of thermometers;
3. give examples that show the relationship between heat and energy conservation
principle;
4. differentiate the specific capacity of common solids and liquids;
5. define calorimetry;
6. determine the melting, freezing, boiling, and condensation points of common
liquids;
7. identify the effects of thermal expansion on solids and liquids;
8. define and illustrate heat transfer by conduction, convection, and radiation; and
9. write the equations and eventually solve problems on heat, calorimetry, and thermal
expansion.
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THERMODYNAMICS
In the outer circles, write details that tell how cold and hot subjects are different. Where
the circles overlap, write details that tell how the subjects are alike.
COLD HOT
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THERMODYNAMICS
INVESTIGATE
Prepare two clean, empty soft drinks cans, a container of ice water with ice cubes, and a
container of boiling water.
1. Place about 2 cm of water in a soft drink can and heat it on a stove until the water
boils and you see evidence of steam coming from the opening.
2. Using tongs, quickly invert the can halfway into a container of ice water. Note how
much water runs from the can as you remove it from the ice water.
3. Repeat no. 2, this time inverting the can halfway into a container of boiling water.
Note how much water runs from the can as you remove it from the boiling water.
4. Explain your observations in terms of the kinetic molecular theory, evaporation, and
condensation. It is also important to explain any difference observed what
happened to the two soft drinks cans.
Your Investigations:
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THERMODYNAMICS
2.1 TEMPERATURE
Temperature is a relative term. When a cup of coffee is passed on to different people,

you can obtain varied responses. Some people may feel the coffee as hot; others may feel it as
warm. Our sense of touch can only tell us the qualitative indication of temperature, and such is
often misleading. Based on that, temperature may be defined as the measure of the degree of
hotness or coldness of a body. Temperature is also related to the random motion of the
molecules in a substance. It is the average translational kinetic energy of molecules. It is not a
measure of the total kinetic energy of molecules in a substance.
In relation to heat, it is defined as the property that determines the transfer of heat
energy to or from other objects. Between two objects, the one with the higher temperature is
the one that transfers heat to the object with a lower temperature.
If no net transfer of heat occurs between objects, then the objects are said to be in
thermal equilibrium; thus, the objects have the same temperature.
MEASURING TEMPERATURE
The instrument used to measure temperature is the thermometer. In measuring

temperature, the thermometer must be in thermal equilibrium with the object with an
unknown temperature.
A device can be a thermometer if it makes use of some physical property that reacts to
changes in temperature. These kinds of substances are called thermometric substances. The
changes in the physical properties of these substances are proportional to the change in
temperature. The common thermometer consists of a glass tube with a thin column of colored
alcohol or mercury. The change in length of the liquid inside the column is proportional to the
change in temperature.
Determining the object’s temperature with precision requires a standard

measurement. These standards often use temperature scales. There are three main
temperature scales used in the world – degree Celsius (oC), degree Fahrenheit (oF), and Kelvin
(K). These are compared in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Temperature Scale Comparison

oC K oF
Water boils 100 373 212

Water freezes 0 273 32
Absolute zero -273 0 -459
Adapted from: Aquino, et al., (2012). Science Links (Physics)
CELSIUS (OC) AND FAHRENHEIT (OF) SCALE
The temperature at which ice melts (water freezes) and the temperature at which
water boils are used as reference points on both Celsius and Fahrenheit scales.
1. From Table 2.1, the freezing point of water is 0 oC on the Celsius scale, and the boiling
point of water is 100 oC.
2. Water freezes at 32 oF on the Fahrenheit scale, and boils at 212 oF.
23
THERMODYNAMICS
3. On the Celsius scale, there are 100 degrees between the freezing point and the boiling
point of water, compared to 180 degrees on the Fahrenheit scale. This means that 1oC
= 1.8 oF. Thus, the following formulas can be used to convert temperature between the
two scale (Aquino, et al., 2012):
TF = 1.8 TC + 32 TC = 0.56 (TF – 32)

= 9/5 TC + 32 = 5/9 (TF – 32)
THE KELVIN SCALE (ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE)
This scale, which is named after Lord Kelvin, is based on one fixed point: the triple
point of water. The triple point of water is the temperature at which saturated vapor, pure
water, and ice all coexist in equilibrium. The Kelvin equivalent of a degree Celsius
measurement can be found using this equation: K = TC + 273.
Celsius and Fahrenheit can have positive and negative values, but Kelvin is always
positive. Kelvin is considered to be an absolute scale. Since temperature is associated with the
kinetic energy of the atoms, which is positive, the absolute temperature should be positive
also. In the Kelvin scale, a temperature of 0.00 K indicates the lowest temperature at which the
molecules have zero kinetic energy, which is equal to -273 oC. The intervals of both the Kelvin
and Celsius are the same. It also follows that changes in temperature will be equal for both
scales.
We can convert one temperature scale to another using the given equations above.
Consider the following examples:
1. A container with oil is heated from 40oC to 120 oC. Find the change in temperature in a)
oC and b) K.
Given: Tinitial = 40oC Tfinal = 120 oC
Solution:
a. change in temperature, ∆𝑇 = Tfinal – Tinitial
= (120 oC – 40oC)
= 80oC
b. (K)Tinitial = 40oC + 273 = 313 K (K) Tfinal = 120 oC + 273 = 393 K

change in temperature, ∆𝑇 = Tfinal – Tinitial
= (393 K – 313 K)
= 80 K
2. A patient with a COVID-19 virus has a body temperature of 106 oF. What does this read
on a Celsius thermometer? On a Kelvin thermometer?
Given: 106 oF
Solution:
a. TC = 5/9 (TF – 32) b. K = TC + 273
= 5/9 (106 oF – 32) = 41.1 oC + 273
= 41.1 C
o = 314.1 K
Calculate the difference between 97oF and

40 oF in both degree Celsius and Kelvin The boiling temperature of liquid oxygen
(O2) is -297.3˚F. Convert this temperature
to Kelvin.
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THERMODYNAMICS
2.2 HEAT
Heat is energy in transit. Heat can be defined as the thermal energy that is being
transferred from one object to another because
Heat flows from region of hotter temperature to of temperature difference, T. Heat will always
region of colder temperature
flow from hotter objects to objects with lower
temperature. When an object is heated, energy is
actually given to the object. It is important to
remember that an object does not contain heat.
Once heat energy touches another object, it is
eventually converted into internal energy. When
Figure 2.2: Diagram showing the flow a substance absorbs heat, its molecules gain
of heat kinetic energy and move at a greater speed
Source: https://www.freepik.com/ (Aquino, et al., 2012).
The faster they move, the hotter the substance
becomes. The substance is said to have gained internal energy. Heat is then a measure of the
change in the total internal energy of a body. If the substance gives off heat, its internal energy
decreases. Internal energy is also proportional to the temperature of a substance. The higher
the temperature, the greater the internal energy is. If the substance gives off heat, the
temperature also decreases. It is important to note that heat will not necessarily flow from an
object with high internal energy to an object of low internal energy (Aquino, et al., 2012).
Internal energy is dependent on the amount of s substance. The greater the amount of
the substance, the higher is the internal energy. Imagine yourself drinking a hot cup of coffee.
As you drink, a tiny drop accidentally lands on your hand. The temperature of the drop of
coffee is the same as the one in the cup. However, the effect is nothing compared to the effect
of the entire cup of coffee poured into your hand. Here, it can be said that there is less internal
energy in a drop of hot coffee than in the cup of hot coffee (Aquino, et al., 2012).
The unit of heat is defined as the energy necessary to produce some standard. The
most common unit used for heat is the calorie. The calorie is the amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1oC. A kilocalorie is 1,000 calories (the amount of
heat needed to change 1 kilogram of water by 1oC). For food energy, the unit is also in calorie,
but this time, it is written with a capital C, which is 1 food Calorie or 1,000 calories or 1 Calorie
is 1 kilocalorie (Aquino, et al., 2012)..
The relationship between mechanical and thermal work is called the mechanical
equivalent of heat. The presently accepted result is 1 calorie = 4.1868 Joules (Aquino, et al.,
2012).
HEAT CAPACITY AND SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
Why do some objects remain hot for a longer period than others?
If 10 g and 1,000 g of water are heated using the same heat source, it will take a longer
time to heat 1,000 g of water at the same temperature change as that of the 10 g of water. This
shows that the amount of heat needed to change the temperature of an object depends on its
mass. The larger the mass, the more heat is required. Heat capacity (C) is the amount of heat
needed to raise the temperature of a body by 1 K or 1 oC.
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THERMODYNAMICS
Heat capacity can be calculated using the formula below:
𝑸
𝒄=
∆𝑻
where,
c = specific heat capacity (J/oC or J/K or cal/ oC)
Q = amount of heat absorbed (J or cal)
∆𝑇 = change in temperature (K or oC)
Since heat capacity depends on mass, the amount of heat needed to change the
temperature per unit mass can also be examined. This is specific heat capacity. Specific heat
capacity or specific heat of any substance is defined as the quantity of heat required to
change the temperature of a unit mass of the substance by 1 degree. Different materials
require different quantities of heat to raise the temperature of a given mass of a substance by a
specified number of degrees. In short, different materials absorb energy in different amounts.
The equation is given below.
∆𝑸
𝒄=
𝒎∆𝑻
where,
c = specific heat capacity (J/g oC or J/kg K)
∆𝑄 = amount of heat absorbed or released (cal)
m = mass of the substance (g or kg)
∆𝑇 = change in temperature (oC)
If you will notice from Table 2.2, water has a relatively high specific heat capacity as
compared to the other materials, except for hydrogen, which is a flammable gas. The high
specific heat capacity of water makes it a very good cooling agent. It means that a lot of heat
energy is needed to raise its temperature. In most cars and manufacturing companies, water is
commonly used in cooling car and some machinery in most industrial companies.
Similarly, the high specific heat capacity of water allows it to hold energy for a longer
period. Hence, oceans are warmer in the evening while the sands of the beaches are cooler
around at the same time.
Table 2.2: Specific Heat Capacity of Common Materials
Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/physics/chapter/13-2-thermal-expansion-of-solids-and-liquids/
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THERMODYNAMICS
Examples:
1. How much heat is needed to raise the temperature of 0.800kg ethyl alcohol from 15.0 oC
to its boiling point, 78.3oC?
Given: m = 0.800 kg or 800 g Solution:

Tf = 78.3 oC ∆𝑄 = mc∆𝑇
Ti = 15.0 oC = (800g) (2.460J/goC) (78.3 oC – 15.0 oC)
c = 2.460 J/g oC = 124,574.4 J
2. How much heat does 25.0g of aluminum give off as it cools from 100.0oC to 20.0oC?
Given: m = 25.0 g Solution:

Tf = 20.0oC ∆𝑄 = mc∆𝑇
Ti = 100.0oC = (25.0g) (0.900 J/g oC) (20.0oC – 100.0oC)
c = 0.900 J/g oC = - 1,800 J
A body with mass 2 kg absorbs heat 100 calories when its temperature raises from
20oC to 70 oC. What is the specific heat of the body?
2.3 CALORIMETRY
DETERMINING SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
When an object loses heat, there must be something that must absorb this lost heat. This
is the conservation of energy as applied to heat. Heat, as a form of energy, can neither be
created nor destroyed. Heat flows from one object to another. This concept of conservation of
energy leads to the determination of the specific heat capacity of substances.
In determining the specific heat capacity of an object, it is necessary to measure the

mass of the object, the change in temperature, and lastly, the amount of energy transferred as
heat.
If a hot material is placed in an insulated container filled with water, the heat released
by the hot material will be absorbed by the water. There will be a small amount of heat energy
absorbed by the container, but the effect is negligible that it can be ignored in this discussion.
Energy conservation can then be applied to set up a working equation. The heat released by the
hot material (heat lost) will be equal to the heat absorbed by the water (heat gain). Normally,
the heat lost by an object is negative, while the heat gained by another object is considered
positive.
- Heat released by hot substance = Heat absorbed by water

- Heat lost by hot material = Heat gained by water
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THERMODYNAMICS
A general equation can be written as follows:
- Heat lost (by hotter object) = Heat gained (colder object)

−∆𝑸𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒕 = ∆𝑸𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏
Since ∆𝑄 = mc∆𝑇, then
- (mc∆𝑻)lost = (mc∆𝑻)gain
- [mc (Tf – Ti)]lost = [mc (Tf – Ti)]gain
where,
m = mass for hot or cold object
c = specific heat capacity of the object
Tf = final temperature
Ti = initial temperature
As the two objects of different temperatures come in contact, their temperature will
reach thermal equilibrium in a given time. This means that the two objects will have a common
final temperature. This approach of determining the specific heat capacity of any material is
called calorimetry. It is also the measurement of the quantity of heat exchanged. For
calculations involving calorimetry, it is always assumed that the final temperature of the two
objects will be the same. As a result, there will only be one temperature for Tf.
The device that is used in calorimetry is called a calorimeter. It removes the outside
atmosphere in order to calculate any loss or gain of energy in the material resulting in a
temperature increase.
A calorimeter usually contains a thermometer to measure the final temperature when

the materials are in thermal equilibrium. A stirrer makes sure that the energy is distributed
uniformly.
Examples:
1. A 200g piece of lead is heated to 98oC and is then dropped into 100ml (100g) of water at
4.5 oC. If the final temperature is 10 oC, what is the specific heat of this lead?
Given: For Lead: m = 200g For Water: m = 100 g

Ti = 98oC Ti = 4.5 oC
Tf = 10 oC Tf = 10 oC
c = 4.186 J/g oC
Find: specific heat capacity of lead cL
Solution:
−∆𝑸𝑳 = ∆𝑸𝑾
- [mc (Tf – Ti)]Lead = [mc (Tf – Ti)]Water
- (200g) cL(10 oC – 98oC) = (100g)( 4.186 J/g oC)( 10 oC – 4.5 oC)
cL= 2,302.3 J/17,660 g oC
cL= 0.1303 J/ g oC
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THERMODYNAMICS
2. A block made of iron (cFe = 0.115 cal/goC) weighing 800 g at 100oC is dropped into a 280
g brass (cbrass = 0.090 cal/goC) calorimeter cup that contains 350g of water (c water = 1
cal/goC). If the initial temperature of the water was 15 oC, what will be the resulting
temperature?
Given:
For Iron For Brass For Water
m = 800 g m = 280 g m = 350g

c = 0.115 cal/goC c = 0.090 cal/goC c = 1 cal/goC
Ti = 100oC Ti = 15 oC Ti = 15 oC
Find: Tf
Solution:
Heat lost by the iron = heat gained by the brass calorimeter + heat gained by water
- [mc (Tf – Ti)]iron = [mc (Tf – Ti)]brass + [mc (Tf – Ti)]water
-(800 g)(0.115 cal/goC)(Tf –100oC) = [(280 g)(0.090cal/goC)(Tf –15oC)] + [(350g)(1cal/goC)( Tf –15 oC)]
-92Tf +9,200 = 25.2 Tf – 378 + 350 Tf – 5,250
467.2 Tf = 14,828
Tf = (14,828/ 467.2) oC
Tf = 31.74 oC
A 0.500kg piece of lead at 100oC is placed in 0.200kg of water at 20 oC which is

contained in an aluminum calorimeter (c = 9.0x102J/kg oC) that has a mass of
0.400kg. If the final temperature of the lead, water (c = 4.2x10 3J/kg oC), and
calorimeter is 24 oC, find the specific heat of the lead.
Ans. 1.3 x 102 J/kgoC
MELTING AND FREEZING
When solids are heated, they become liquid; this change in phase is called melting. For
pure substances, melting happens at a fixed temperature, which is known as the melting point.
For example, pure ice will always melt at 0oC. During melting, heat given to ice is used to
break intermolecular bonds between ice molecules. Once the bonds are broken, the molecules
can now move farther away from each other. During the entire process of melting, the
temperature remains constant until all ice is turned into water. The temperature will only
change if the substance has in the same phase, for example, heating ice from -15 oC to 0 oC or
heating water from 10 oC to 80 oC.
The heat absorbed to melt solids into liquids without the change in temperature is
called latent heat of fusion (Lf) of the substance.
Freezing or solidification is the opposite process of melting. Freezing or solidification is

turning liquid into its solid state. A pure substance will freeze or solidify at a fixed temperature
known as the freezing point. In addition, the freezing point is the same as the melting point of
any pure substance. For water, the freezing point will also be 0 oC, which is the same as its
melting point.
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THERMODYNAMICS
During freezing or solidification, the temperature of the substance remains constant

until all the substance is turned into solid. During this process, the substance releases heat. The
heat released during solidification without the change in temperature is also called latent heat
of fusion (Lf). The amount of heat needed to melt a substance is equal to the heat released
when the same amount of substance is solidified.
The freezing point is affected if there are impurities. In the cold season, the car-cooling
system will be damaged when water expands as it freezes; this is true for countries with four
seasons. To prevent this, car owners mix antifreeze to lower the freezing point of water. In
adding antifreeze, even at a temperature below 0 oC, water will not freeze.
Applying pressure, on the other hand, affects the melting point of ice. Normally, ice
melts at 0 oC. But when pressure is added, the melting point of ice is lowered. For example,
gathering lumps of snow and pressing them together to make snowballs. But when the pressure
is released, the melted snow will start refreezing, thus, creating the snowballs. This
phenomenon of lowering the melting point by applying pressure and refreezing once the
pressure is removed is called regelation.
BOILING, EVAPORATION, AND CONDENSATION
When a pure liquid is heated continuously, it changes to gas or vapor at a fixed or

constant temperature known as boiling point. The reverse of boiling is known as condensation.
Condensation is defined as the change of phase of vapor or gas into liquid without a change in
temperature.
During the process of boiling, heat is absorbed by the substance, whereas, during
condensation, heat is released. The heat that is absorbed by the substance during boiling
without any change in temperature is called the latent heat of vaporization (Lv). It is also
equal to the amount of heat released during condensation for the same amount of substance.
Throughout the process of boiling, the absorbed heat is used to break intermolecular
bonds between liquid. Once the bonds are broken, gas molecules move farther apart (large
increase in volume) with negligible intermolecular forces of attraction between them.
In condensation, as molecules come together and form intermolecular bonds, heat is

released. During this process of condensation, the temperature remains constant until all the
gases are turned into liquid form. Condensation is a warming process. During condensation,
heat is constantly removed from the substance and released to the surroundings. This process
warms the surroundings.
Adding impurities will raise the boiling point of pure substances. The antifreeze added
to water for a car’s cooling system will cause the boiling point of water to be higher than 100 oC.
This is the reason why seawater has a higher boiling point than freshwater because of the
presence of salts and other impurities.
Lowering pressure affects the boiling point by lowering it. At high altitude, water can
boil below 100 oC. On the other hand, an increase in pressure will raise the boiling point of a
substance.
Boiling and evaporation are two different concepts, even though both involve phase
change from liquid to gas. The table below (Table 2.3) summarizes the differences between
boiling and evaporation.
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THERMODYNAMICS
Table 2.3: Different Characteristics of Evaporation and Boiling

Evaporation Boiling
1. Occurs at any temperature 1. Happens at a fixed temperature
2. Heat comes from the surroundings 2. Heat given comes from an energy source
3. Temperature may vary 3. Temperature remains the same throughout
the process
4. It is a slow process 4. It is a quick process
5. No bubbles are formed 5. Bubbles are produced
6. Takes place on the surface of the 6. Takes place within the liquid
liquid
Evaporation is a cooling process. Evaporation requires heat. Water evaporating from

the skin will use the heat coming from your body. Since the body loses heat when water
evaporates, the result will make the body feel cold.
Cooling by evaporation is due to the difference in the speed of molecules within the
liquid. Normally, the molecules near the surface receive more energy, making them move faster
than the ones within the liquid. The fast-moving molecule can overcome the intermolecular
forces, thus, escaping from the atmosphere. The slow-moving ones are pulled back into the
liquid. As a result, it leaves molecules with less energy and lower temperature, thus, creates a
cooling effect.
There are several factors affecting the rate of evaporation; these are as follows:
1. Temperature
Evaporation occurs at any temperature. Increasing the temperature increases
the kinetic energy of the molecule, making it more energetic to escape.
2. Humidity of the surrounding air
Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air. The more water vapor in the
air, the harder it is for liquid molecules to evaporate. Thus, higher humidity means a
slower rate of evaporation.
3. Surface area of the liquid
Evaporation only takes place at the surface. Increasing the surface area means
more molecules can escape to the atmosphere, thus, increasing the rate of evaporation.
4. Movement of air above the liquid
Blowing air on the surface of the liquid immediately removes evaporating liquid
as soon as they escape. This increases the rate of evaporation.
5. Pressure
Lower atmospheric pressure means fewer particles in the atmosphere. The less
crowded the atmosphere means more opportunities for the escaping molecules, thus,
increasing the rate of evaporation.
6. The nature of the liquid
Substances with a lower boiling point have higher rates of evaporation.
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THERMODYNAMICS
2.4 THERMAL EXPANSION
What will happen to an object that absorbs heat energy? As objects absorb heat energy,
there will be an increase in the objects’ internal energy. This increase will allow its molecules to
vibrate, which causes the objects’ kinetic energy to increase. Therefore, the temperature will
also increase. The more heat energy is added, the greater the increase in the temperature. This
will make the molecules move faster. As a result, the molecules tend to move farther apart. This
phenomenon is known as thermal expansion, but as it cools down, the substance contracts.
Two frequently observed effects of temperature changes are change in size and change
of phase of materials. When solid is subjected to a rise in temperature, (∆𝑇), its increase in
length (∆𝐿) is very nearly proportional to its initial length (Lo) multiplied by ∆𝑇. The equation is
presented below (Table 2.4). The proportionality constant (∝, 𝛽) is called the coefficient of the
linear/volume expansion, which is dependent on the nature of the substance. The unit used to
express this quantity is oC-1; read as “per degree.”
Table 2.4: Equations for Thermal Expansion

Linear Expansion ∆𝑳 = increase in length (m)
(Solid) ∝ = coefficient of linear expansion (oC-1)
∆𝑳 =∝ 𝑳𝟎 ∆𝑻 𝑳𝟎 = initial length (m)
∆𝑻 = increase in temperature (oC)
Volume Expansion ∆𝑉 = increase in volume (mL)
(Liquid) 𝛽 = coefficient of volume expansion (oC-1)
∆𝑽 = 𝜷𝑽𝟎 ∆𝑻 𝑉0 = initial volume (mL)
∆𝑇 = increase in temperature (oC)
Every material expands differently depending on its thermal expansivity. A bimetallic

strip is an example of a practical device that consists of two metals of different expansivity
coefficients joined together. Bimetallic strips are used in appliances that need to control
temperatures. When the temperature rises, it will bend in one direction and turns the appliance
on. When the temperature goes down, it will turn off the appliance. An example of this
appliance is the refrigerator of the air conditioning system.
Other real-world applications of thermal expansion include devices and systems in the
construction of roads and bridges. Architects and engineers allow for these expansions in their
design of railroad tracks so that they can slide toward and away each other on hot and cold
days, preventing accidents that may arise from bent tracks due to overheating.
Table 2.5: Coefficient of Linear/Volume Expansion

Material Coefficient of linear Coefficient of volume
expansion α(1/ºC) expansion β(1/ºC)
SOLIDS
Aluminum 25 × 10-6 75 × 10– 6
Brass 19 × 10-6 56 × 10– 6
Copper 17 × 10-6 51 × 10– 6
Gold 14 × 10-6 42 × 10– 6
Iron or Steel 11 × 10-6 35 × 10– 6
Lead 29 × 10- 6 87 × 10-6
Silver 18 × 10-6 54 × 10-6
Glass (ordinary) 9 × 10-6 27 × 10-6
Glass (Pyrex®) 3 × 10-6 9 × 10-6
Quartz 0.4 × 10-6 1 × 10-6
Concrete, Brick ~12 × 10-6 ~36 × 10-6
32
THERMODYNAMICS
Marble (average) 2.5 × 10-6 7.5 × 10-6

Invar (nickel-steel alloy) 0.9× 10-6
LIQUIDS
Ether 1650 × 10-6
Ethyl alcohol 1100 × 10-6
Petrol 950 × 10-6
Glycerin 500 × 10-6
Mercury 180 × 10-6
Water 210 × 10-6
Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/physics/chapter/13-2-thermal-expansion-of-solids-and-liquids/
EXPANSION OF SOLIDS
When the glass stopper of a bottle gets stuck, we usually heat the neck of the bottle, and
after a short while, the stopper can be easily removed. Why? When we stack drinking glasses
one inside the other in the cupboard, two of them may stick together. If we twist them apart,
one or both of them may break. One safe way of separating them is to pour some cold water into
the inner glass and dip the outer glass in hot water. Within a short while, the two glasses can
easily be pulled apart.
Examples:
1. A copper bar is 80.0 cm long at 15.0 oC. What is the increase in length when it is heated
to 35.0 oC?
Given: Lo = 80.0 cm Tf = 35.0 oC
To = 15.0 C
o ∝copper = 17x10-6/ oC
Find: increase in length
Solution:
∆𝐿 =∝ 𝐿0 ∆𝑇
= (17x10-6/ oC) ( 80.0 cm) (35.0 oC – 15.0 oC)
= 2.72x10-2 cm
2. A steel tape is calibrated at 20.0 oC. On a hot day when the temperature is 35.0 oC, what
will be the percent increase in the length of the tape?
Given : Tf = 35.0 oC To = 20.0 oC ∝steel = 11x10-6/ oC
Find: % increase in length
Solution:
∆𝑳 =∝ 𝑳𝟎 ∆𝑻
Percent increase in length is just the ration of the change in length over the
original length and multiplying it to 100.
∆𝑳/𝑳𝟎 =∝ ∆𝑻
= (11x10-6/ oC)( 35.0 oC – 20.0 oC)
= (1.65x10-4 )(100)
= 0.0165 %
A steel beam 12.0m sits next to a concrete wall

A metal rod 0.50 m is
when the temperature is 20.0°C. A gap must be
heated from 15°C to 95°C.
left between the beam and the concrete wall for
The length of the rod
expansion purposes. If the temperature rises to
increases by 0.96 mm.
45.0°C, how large must the gap be if the steel
What is the coefficient of
beam just touches the concrete wall?
expansion for the rod?
Ans. 3.30x10-3m
Ans. 2.4x10-5 oC-1
33
THERMODYNAMICS
EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS
In liquids, heat increases the volume, while cooling decreases the volume.
Water, like all liquids, contracts when cooled. But for water, this is true only for
temperatures above 4 oC. As the temperature of water falls below 4 oC, water expands until it
freezes at 0 oC. Therefore, the maximum density of water is 1.000g/cm 3 at 4 oC. This means that
during freezing weather, when the surface of bodies of water is frozen solid, the warmer water
stays at the bottom, keeping marine plants and animals alive.
Example:
1. If 75.0 mL of ethyl alcohol at 10.0oC is heated to 47.0oC, then what will be its final
volume?
Given: Vo = 75.0mL To = 10.0 oC
𝛽 ethanol = 1100x10-6 oC-1 Tf = 47.0oC
Find: Vf
Solution:
∆𝑉 = 𝛽𝑉0 ∆𝑇
= (1100x10-6 oC-1)( 75.0mL)( 47.0oC – 10.0 oC)
= 3.05 mL
Vfinal = ∆𝑽 + Vo
= 3.05mL + 75.0mL
= 78.1mL
A liquid compound has an initial volume of 5.1 mL at 12.0oC is heated to 28.1oC

resulting to change the volume to 6.8mL. Determine the coefficient of volume
expansion of the liquid compound.
Ans. 2.07x10-2 oC-1
2.5 HEAT TRANFER
Heat transfer is always from hot objects to cold objects. The transfer of heat will cause
the hot object a decrease in temperature, and the cold object an increase in temperature. This
process will continue until both have the same temperature, or both are in thermal equilibrium.
Thermal equilibrium is brought about by the different modes of heat transfer: conduction,
convection, or radiation.
CONDUCTION
Conduction occurs within a material and between materials that are in direct contact.
Heat flows through the materials, but the material itself does not. This process of heat transfer
without the flow of the material medium is called conduction.
Different materials conduct heat differently. Generally, metals are considered good
conductors of heat, while plastic, wood, and other nonmetals are poor conductors. Poor
conductors of heat are often called insulators.
34
THERMODYNAMICS
Conduction can be explained by the collision between atoms and molecules. What
makes metals conduct faster? The difference between metals and nonmetals are free electrons.
The free electrons in a metal are able to move randomly between the molecules.
When heat is supplied to one end of both metals and nonmetals, the molecules of the
end exposed to the source of heat will begin to vibrate vigorously. The vibration of the
molecules will affect and start bumping the next molecules. By bumping, the kinetic energy is
transferred to the next molecules. The kinetic energy will make the next molecule vibrate as
well and to the next, until all the molecules are vibrating and have the same kinetic energy and
have the same temperature. This process of transferring energy by vibration and bumping is
called molecular vibration. This process is common to both metals and nonmetals. The process
is also relatively slow.
In metal, however, aside from molecular vibration, it has another mechanism of

conduction heat transfer: The free-electron diffusion. In free-electron diffusion, the free
electrons of metal move faster because of higher kinetic energy. The fast-moving free electrons
start to diffuse and spread to a cooler region. Along the way, free electrons can transfer their
energy to other molecules and other free electrons by colliding with them. As a result, metal can
conduct heat transfer that nonmetals (insulators).
Heat can also be conducted in gases and liquids. However, the process takes so long
because the collisions between molecules are not as frequent as the solids. Molecules in liquids
and gases are arranged farther apart, and thus, making the collisions very inefficient. Compared
to liquid, gases are poorer conductors of heat because the atoms are even farther apart.
Insulators do not prevent the transfer of heat. It just slows the rate of movement of heat
through the material.
CONVECTION
If conduction is the transfer of energy from molecule to molecule without the movement
of material, convection is the transfer of heat energy by means of a current that moves the
material or the medium from a hot region to a cooler region. In convection, heating happens
with the help of convection currents in a fluid. Convection is usually observed in fluids (gas or
liquids). Convection current is the bulk movement of the heated fluids from hot to cold
regions.
If the water is heated on one side of the container, then the water expands and becomes
less dense. The colder, denser water from the other side of the container flows across and
forces this less dense water to move in a circular direction. Thus convection currents are
generated in the water. If mungo beans are added to the container, then the circulatory
movement of the mungo particles will clearly indicate these currents. Convection currents may
be set up to uneven heating. The heat energy is distributed by the liquid or gaseous molecules in
these circling currents.
Wind is a result of convection. The earth’s surface does not receive heat equally. The
uneven heating of the earth’s surface produces convection currents.
35
THERMODYNAMICS
RADIATION
If you recall the activity, using sunlight and a magnifying glass to burn a piece of paper,
conduction or convection did not cause the paper to burn. In either case, it could not have been
conduction because air is a very poor conductor of heat.
Radiation is the continuous transfer of heat as infrared waves from the surface of all
bodies without any medium. Radiation is a process that can also take place in a vacuum.
Another example of radiation is the heat that comes from the sun. Sun’s heat is transmitted in
an empty space towards the earth.
Any energy, including heat, is transmitted by radiation is called radiant energy. Radiant
energy is carried by the electromagnetic (EM) wave at the speed of light. Electromagnetic waves
include radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays.
The part of the EM wave that makes us feel warm is the infrared waves, also known as radiant
heat. Aside from the sun, all objects emit radiant heat. The hotter the object, the greater the
amount of radiant heat is being emitted.
As the body emits infrared radiation, its temperature decreases. If this is so, why does
the temperature of a body remain constant? Why does it do not decrease? As the body emits
radiant heat, the body also continuously absorbs radiant heat. The warmer object will emit
more radiant heat than it absorbs. When the temperature of the body is the same as the
surroundings, the rate of absorption is equal to the rate of emission.
Some factors that affect the rate of radiation:
1. Color and texture of the material
Dull, black surfaces are better emitters and better absorbers of radiant heat than
smooth, shiny, and white surfaces.
2. Surface temperature
The higher the temperature of the surface area compared to the surroundings,
the faster the rate of heat transfer by radiation.
3. Surface area
Objects of the same mass, material, and temperature, but with different surface
areas will have a different rate of radiation heat transfer. The object with the larger
surface area will have a faster rate if transferring energy by radiation.
36
THERMODYNAMICS
ACTIVITY 4
1. The absolute zero temperature is ________.

a. -273 oC c. 0 oC
b. -32oF d. 273 K
2. The space between the walls of the double-walled thermos bottle is evacuated to ___.
a. Increase volume c. reduce heat transfer by conduction
b. Reduce convection d. both a and b
3. The temperature of dry ice is at -110.2 oF. What would its temperature be on the Celsius
scale?
a. -711oC c. -142.2 oC
b. -198.3 oC d. -79 oC
4. Room temperature is often identified as 68 F. What temperature is this on the Kelvin
0
scale?
a. 20 K c. 293 K
b. 100 K d. 341 K
5. The energy transfer from a source to an object by direct contact between them is called
_____.
a. Conduction c. Insulation
b. Convection d. Radiation
6. What will happen to the temperature of sample water boiling in a stove as more heat is
added?
a. Decreases c. Increase then decrease
b. Increases d. Remains the same
7. When ice melts at 0 C, ______.
0
a. The water produced is at its densest.

b. Its temperature immediately jumps to 400C.
c. The temperature remains constant because no heat is absorbed.
d. The heat energy absorbed is used to break the crystal lattice of the ice.
8. When water reaches 40C, ______.
a. It will expand only if heated.
b. Its volume will remain constant.
c. It will expand whether it is cooled or heated.
d. It will contract until it freezes into ice, and then expand.
9. Which of the following is true about evaporation?
a. It is faster than boiling.
b. It takes place in all parts of the liquid.
c. Evaporation and boiling take place at the same temperature.
d. Evaporation and boiling are the same processes of changing a liquid to gas.
10. Which of the following statements is true about boiling?
a. It is slower than evaporation.
b. It takes place at a definite temperature.
c. It is the same for all liquids at the same temperature.
d. It takes place when bubbles begin to appear in the liquid.
37
THERMODYNAMICS
ACTIVITY 5
Directions: Complete the table shown below by giving the proper conversion.
oC K oF
Degree Celsius Kelvin Degree Fahrenheit

30
212
255
- 35
Directions: Explain your answer briefly.
1. Distinguish the difference between heat capacity and specific heat capacity of a body.
How are they related?
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3. Discuss the similarities and differences between boiling and evaporation.
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4. On a clear, calm night, the temperature of the surface of the sea falls slowly that the
temperature of the nearby beach sand. Explain this observation.
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5. Explain why condensation is a warming process.
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38
THERMODYNAMICS
ACTIVITY 6
Directions: Ongoing Concept Mapping
Develop a concept map around the idea of the microscopic picture of heat and
temperature. Include the following concepts:
1. Heat 6. Thermometer
2. Temperature 7. Celsius
3. Vibrating 8. Fahrenheit
4. Flow 9. Kelvin
5. Cold 10. Phase change
39
THERMODYNAMICS
ACTIVITY 7
Directions: Solve for what is asked. Show you complete solutions and box the final
answer.
1. A 0.24kg brass cylinder is supplied with 6,400 J of heat energy. The temperature rises
from 30.0oC to 100.0 oC. What is the heat capacity of the brass in J/kg K?
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2. A brass rod is 0.500 m long at 20.0 oC. What is the length of the rod if it is heated to 50.0
oC? The coefficient for linear expansion of brass is 19x10 -6 oC-1.
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40
THERMODYNAMICS
3. A 450g cylinder at 150 oC is dropped into 200 g of water at 15 oC. The water is contained
in a 200g brass calorimeter (c = 0.090cal/g oC), and the resulting water temperature is
39 oC. What is the specific heat of the cylinder?
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4. A 1.0 m long aluminum rod is heated from 30.0oC to 50.0 oC. By how much will it
expand? What will its final length be?
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41
THERMODYNAMICS
REFERENCES
Book
Bookstore, Inc.
Webliography

7/17/2020; 8:35 PM)
(Retrieved: 7/18/2020; 9:30 PM)
 https://courses.lumenlearning.com/physics/chapter/13-2-thermal-expansion-of-
solids-and-liquids/ (Retrieved: 7/18/2020; 10:00 PM)
42
THERMODYNAMICS
UNIT III
ENTROPY AND SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Overview
Thermodynamics focuses mainly on how heat transfer is related to various energy
changes within a physical system undergoing a thermodynamic process. Such processes usually
result in work being done by the system and are guided by the laws of thermodynamics
(Aquino, et al., 2012).
Figure 3.1:
Hot Air Balloons
It was James Prescott Joule (1818-1889) who demonstrated that the quantity of work
necessary to cause a given change of state is independent of the type of work, the method of
delivering, or the rate of doing work. He also concluded that work could be converted into heat
and heat into work (Aquino, et al., 2012).
Since then, thermodynamics provides the fundamental theories in constructing heat
engines, steam engines to the basic theory of refrigerators, and heat pumps.

1. define thermodynamics, entropy, and thermodynamic processes;
2. present the equations of the four processes of thermodynamics;
3. differentiate each thermodynamics processes;
4. explain what heat engine is;
5. state the second law of thermodynamics;
6. state the principle on the efficiency of heat engines, heat pumps and refrigerator;
and
7. write the equations and eventually solve problems on entropy, thermodynamic
processes, and engines.
43
THERMODYNAMICS
WHO AM I? ____________________________________________________
(I am the study of heat in terms of molecular motion)
1. It is a unit for power.

1
2. It is the pictorial representation of
2 the relationship between variables.
3. Steepness of a line.
3
4. He asserted that more massive
4 objects fall faster than lighter ones.
5. It is the study of the description of
5
motion.
6 6. It is the study of light.
7. It is the opposite of hot.
7 8. When multiplied to the object’s
mass, it gives the object
8
momentum.
9 9. It is the quantity of a substance
equal to mass over volume.
10
10. It is the fourth state of matter.
11 11. It has mass and occupies space.
12. It is a quantity that changes or
12
varies.
13 13. It is a pivot point.
14. It is the energy from the sun.
14
INVESTIGATE
Start rubbing your hands together. What did you observe? What if your two hands are
just placed together without rubbing, would the result be the same?
Your Observations:
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44
THERMODYNAMICS
3.1 THERMODYNAMICS
The word thermodynamics is derived from two Greek words: thermos, meaning “heat,”
and dynamikos, meaning “power”. Thermodynamics is the study of heat and its
transformation into work. Thermodynamics is the field of physics that deals with the
relationship between heat and other properties (such as pressure, density, temperature, etc)
in a substance (Navaza and Valdes, 2011).
Specifically, thermodynamics focuses largely on how a heat transfer is related to

various energy changes within a physical system undergoing a thermodynamic process. Such
processes usually result in work being done by the system and are guided by the laws of
thermodynamics (Aquino, et al., 2012).
It was James Prescott Joule (1818-1889) who demonstrated that the quantity of work
necessary to cause a given change of state is independent of the type of work, the method of
delivering, or the rate of doing work. He also concluded that work could be converted into heat
and heat into work (Aquino, et al., 2012).
Since then, thermodynamics provides the basic theories in constructing heat engines,
steam engines to the basic theory of refrigerators, and heat pumps (Aquino, et al., 2012).
Thermodynamics uses the absolute temperature scale of Kelvin or the thermodynamic

scale. Unlike the other temperature scale, the Kelvin scale has no negative numbers. It was
Lord Kelvin who suggested using the scale. It was also him who coined the name
thermodynamics (Aquino, et al., 2012).
Video Presentation https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4i1MUWJoI0U
HEAT AND WORK
From previous units, you have learned that energy is needed to perform work. When
work is done on a body, energy is transferred to that body. The transfer of energy to the body
increases the internal energy. The internal will later decrease as the body converts it to heat.
From Joules’ theory, the reverse should also be true. Energy can be converted or transferred to
a body as heat, and the body can perform work.
Consider the hot air balloon in Figure 3.1. Energy is transferred as heat from the flame
of the burner to the air inside the balloon. The air inside increases its internal energy, and as a
result, the volume of the air inside also increases. This expansion of the air inside provides a
force against the inside surface of the balloon and inflates it. As a consequence, the hot air does
work on the balloon, and doing work will decrease the internal energy of the hot air, thus,
conserving energy.
From this example, the work done by the hot air comes from the heat that was
supplied by the flame. The work done on or by the hot air or gas, in general, produces pressure
and changes the volume of the balloon.
45
THERMODYNAMICS
When a certain volume of gas expands, it works against

external pressure to expand (Figure 3.2). That is, the gas must
perform work. Assuming that the external pressure is constant,
by the simplest description of work in a thermodynamic setting,
work is the product of the pressure applied on or by the gas and
the change in volume.
𝐅
𝐏= ; F = PA
𝐀
Work = Fd ; Work = PA · ∆𝐝
Source: https://saylordotorg.github.io A∆𝒉 = ∆𝑽 ; ∆𝑽 = A · ∆𝐝

Figure 3.2: Volume versus Pressure
therefore;
Work = P · ∆𝑽
where,
P = pressure
F = force
A = cross-sectional area of the cylinder
∆d = change in distance
∆V = change in volume
Volume changes are usually expressed in Liters (L), while pressures are usually
expressed in atmospheres (atm). When we use the equation to determine work, the unit for
work derives out as liter·atmospheres or L·atm. This is not a very common unit for work.
However, there is a conversion factor between L·atm and the common unit of work, joules (J)
(Navaza and Valdes, 2011):
1 L·atm = 101.32 J
Examples:
1. A cylindrical container with a cross-sectional area of 0.020 m2 and a movable piston

contains a certain amount of gas. If the gas exerts a constant pressure of 2.5x10 5 Pa,
causing the piston to move 0.050 m, how much work was done by the expanding gas?
Given: A = 0.020 m2
P = 2.5 x 105 Pa
∆d = 0.050 m
Find: Work
Solution:
Work = P∆𝑉 = PA∆d
= (2.5 x 105 Pa)( 0.020 m2)(0.050 m)
= 2.5x102 J
Note: The pascal (Pa) is SI derived unit of pressure. It is equivalent to J/m 3.
46
THERMODYNAMICS
2. What is the work performed by gas if it expands from 3.44L to 6.19 L against an
external pressure of 1.26 atm? Express the final answer in joules.
Given: P = 1.26 atm Vo = 3.44L
Vf = 6.19L
Find: Work
Solution:
Work = -P∆𝑉
= -(1.26 atm)(6.19L – 3.44L)
= -3.465 L·atm
= -351 J
Note: The negative sign in the equation for work is important and implies that as
volume expands (ΔV is positive), the gas in the system is losing energy as work. On the
other hand, if the gas is contracting, ΔV is negative, and the two negative signs make
the work positive, so energy is being added to the system (retrieved from:
heattemperatureworkefficiency-170218035403.pdf).
What is the work performed when a gas expands from 0.66L to 1.33L against an
external pressure of 0.775 atm?
Ans. -53 J
What is the work when a gas contracts from 3.45L to 0.97L under an external
pressure of 0.985 atn?
Ans. 248 J
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
Thermodynamic process or a change of state can be described as any change in the

values of the following quantities: pressure, volume, temperature, and quantity of a substance.
The quantities are known as state variables.
State variables are variables that describe the features of a system that are always the
same whenever that system is in a given state. A state is a particular situation wherein a
system has specified values of pressure, volume, temperature, and quantity of a substance.
If the process can be made to go in the reverse direction, it is called a reversible

process. Otherwise, it is an irreversible process. A cycle is a succession of changes that ends
with the return of the system to its initial state.
The first thermodynamic process is the constant volume process known as

isovolumetric or isochoric or isometric process. A sealed car left under the sun will cause
the temperature inside to rise. The rise in the car’s temperature also indicates an increase in
the internal energy inside the vehicle. But, because cars are made up of sturdy and strong
metal, any change in the volume of the car is negligible.
In general, under a constant volume process, no work is produced by the trapped gases
or the car. The heat absorbed by the car is used to increase the internal energy. So no work is
done by any gas that receives heat and undergoes an isovolumetric process.
The second thermodynamic process is the constant temperature process or an

isothermal process. A system undergoing an isothermal process absorbs heat, but the
temperature remains constant. An example of an isothermal process is the boiling of water.
47
THERMODYNAMICS
When water is heated to 100oC, it will not start boiling instantly. It will keep on absorbing heat
at constant temperature; this heat is called the latent heat of vaporization.
In an isothermal process, the heat received by a system is converted to work.
The next thermodynamic process is when the heat content of the system or a certain
quantity of matter remains constant. This process is called an adiabatic process. An adiabatic
process involves no transfer of heat between the system and its surroundings. The wall of the
system, which does not allow the flow of heat through it, is called an adiabatic wall, while the
wall, which allows the flow of heat is called a diathermic wall. The adiabatic process happens
when there is a rapid decrease in pressure that the system has limited time to absorb heat
from the surroundings.
The work done in an adiabatic process will cause the temperature of the system to
decrease. The decrease in internal energy is equal to the energy that the gas needs to perform
work.
The last thermodynamic process is the constant-pressure process known as the

isobaric process. An example is a fuel cylinder and a movable piston arrangement. When this
fuel is combusted or ignited, pressure due to the burnt gases is generated inside the engine. As
more fuel is burnt, the greater pressure is created. Since the piston is movable and the gases
are allowed to expand freely, the pressure of the system can be kept constant. Due to the
burning, the temperature of the system increases; thus, the internal energy of the engine also
increases.
In the example above, the heat absorbed is equivalent to the work done by the
expanding gas and some to increase the internal energy of the system.
3.2 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
In its natural condition, heat always flows from objects of higher temperature to
objects of lower temperature. During this process, the object with higher temperature loses
heat while the object with lower temperature gains heat. The amount of heat lost is always
equal to the amount of heat gained. In other words, heat energy is conserved. It is neither
created nor destroyed.
If this energy conservation is applied to thermal systems or systems involving changes

in temperature, then it is called the first law of thermodynamics. This can be stated as:
The heat added to a system equals to an increase in the internal energy of a

system plus the external work done by the system.
In all thermodynamic processes that were discussed previously, energy has been
conserved. To understand the overall change in the system’s internal energy, the heat energy
that was transferred to or from the system must be accounted for and determine the amount
of work done.
From this law, when the heat is added to a system, the system does one or both of the
following things: (1) the heat may be used to increase the internal energy of the system; and
(2) the heat may be used to perform external work (work done by the system). The
mathematical form of the first law is shown below.
48
THERMODYNAMICS
∆𝐐 = ∆𝐔 + 𝐖
where:
∆Q = the heat transferred to or from the system

∆U = the change in the internal energy
W = external work done by the system
From the above equation, it can also be analyzed that the system’s internal energy can
be changed by adding or removing heat or doing work or both.
∆𝐔 = ∆𝐐 − 𝐖
Below is a table (Table 3.1) that summarizes the heat and work for a given system.
Table 3.1: Signs of Heat and Work for a Given System

∆𝐐 > 𝟎 Energy is added to the system as heat Internal energy increases if W = 0
∆𝐐 < 𝟎 Energy is removed from the system as heat Internal energy decreases if W = 0
∆𝐐 = 𝟎 No transfer of energy as heat No internal energy change if W = 0
𝐖 >𝟎 Work done by the system (expansion of gas) Internal energy decreases if ∆𝐐 = 0
𝐖 <𝟎 Work done on system (compression of gas) Internal energy increases if ∆Q = 0
𝐖=𝟎 No work done No internal energy change if ∆Q = 0
Example:
1. A specific system absorbs 400.0 J of energy and does 350.0 J of work. How much is the
change in the internal energy of the system?
Given: ∆Q = 400.0 J
W = 350.0 J
Find: ∆𝐔
Solution:
∆𝐐 = ∆𝐔 + 𝐖
thus;
∆𝐔 = ∆𝐐 − 𝐖
= 400.0 J - 350.0 J
= 50 J
We can express the thermodynamic processes using the equation of the first law of
thermodynamics. The table below (Table 3.2) shows how the first law will behave under the
different types of thermodynamic processes.
Table 3.2: First Law of Thermodynamics for the Thermodynamic Processes

Process Definition Mathematical Interpretation
expression
Adiabatic No heat is added or ∆Q = 0 Work done on the system
removed from the system 0 = ∆U + W increases the internal
∆U = −W energy of the system
Isothermal The temperature of the ∆U = 0 Energy added to the
system remains the same. ∆Q = W system as heat is used to
Internal energy remains do work.
constant.
Isomeric/ The volume of the system W=0 Heat added to the system
isovolumetric/ does not change. There is ∆Q = ∆U is used to increase the
isochoric no work produced. internal energy.
49
THERMODYNAMICS
Isobaric The pressure in the W = P∆V = P(𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖 ) Heat added to the system
system does not change. If applied to the first law, is used to increase the
∆Q = ∆U + P∆V internal energy and do
work.
HEAT ENGINES
What are heat engines? Heat engines are machines that convert heat energy into
mechanical energy. There are many kinds of engines. Some of these are the steam engine,
gasoline engine, and diesel engine. If the burning of fuel takes place outside the engine, then
the engine is classified as an external combustion engine. An ordinary steam locomotive is
an example of an external combustion engine. However, if the fuel is burned inside the
cylinder or turbine chamber, the engine is called an internal combustion engine. Cars are
run by internal combustion engines.
For a heat engine to perform, the following requirements must be present: heat source
(High-Temperature Reservoir), heat sink (Low-Temperature Reservoir), and the engine must
perform work (Useful Work).
From the diagram, heat
High Temperature Reservoir,
is taken in by the engine is
Heat Input, 𝐐 used to perform useful work.
However, not all heat
absorbed by the engine can
HEAT ENGINE Useful Work Output, W
be converted into useful
work. There will always be a
Heat Output, 𝐐
portion that will be expelled
as waste heat. The waste heat
Low Temperature Reservoir, goes to the low-temperature
reservoir or the heat sink.
Figure 3.3: Heat Engine Diagram
A heat engine does work by transferring heat from the high-temperature reservoir to
the low-temperature reservoir. The energy converted as useful mechanical work is equal to
the difference in the heat input and the heat output.
𝐖= 𝐐 −𝐐
The greater the difference between the heat input and the heat output, the more work
can be produced. All heat engines operate in a cycle of repeated sequences of heating (or
compressing) and pressurizing the working fluid, the performance of mechanical work, and
rejecting unused or waste heat to a heat sink.
Example:
1. A particular engine turns 800 J of input energy into 560 J of useful work, and the rest of the
energy is released to the surroundings. How much energy is released to the environment?
Given: Q H = 800 J W = 560 J
Find: QC
Solution:
From the equation, 𝐖 = 𝐐 − 𝐐
QC = QH – W
QC = 800 J – 560 J
= 240 J
50
THERMODYNAMICS
EXTERNAL COMBUSTION HEAT ENGINE
All steam engines consist mainly of a boiler, a steam chest, and a cylinder. The boiler
holds the water, which is heated by the burning fuel and transformed into steam. Boilers may
be of two types.
a. Water-tube type. This type of boiler is common with stationary engines and turbines.
Water is allowed to pass through tubes, while the flames and hot gaseous products to
combustion follow a path over and around the tubes.
b. Fire-tube type. This is the boiler type used by steam locomotives. It is the direct
opposite of the water-tube type. The flames and the heat are made to enter the tubes,
which are horizontally arranged in the boiler and surrounded by water. The heated
water is transformed into steam, which is led into a steam chest. The steam chest is the
chamber from which the steam is passed into the cylinder.
Steam engines may be classified as condensing or noncondensing.
a. Condensing type. This type of engine is a stationary steam engine. It is ordinarily

made with a built-in condenser where the used steam is cooled and reconverted into
water. The spent steam is therefore not wasted, and the boiler need not often be
replenished with water.
b. Noncondensing type. This is the type used
by the steam locomotives (Figure 3.4). The
spent steam is directly led out of the engine
into the atmosphere. This means that none
of the steam is reconverted into water. This
is the reason steam locomotives have to
periodically stop by stations and replenish Source: https://www. Freepik.com/
the water in their boiler. Figure 3.4: A Steam Locomotive
INTERNAL COMBUSTION HEAT ENGINE
GASOLINE ENGINES
The engine of a car is the most common example of an internal combustion engine. The
fuel is mixed with air in the carburetor, which is then drawn into an airtight cylinder, where it
is compressed and ignited by a spark plug. The energy of the expanding gases resulting from
the explosion forces the piston to move down. This moving force is transmitted to a crankshaft,
which in turn makes the wheels turn. Gas engines may have as few as one cylinder or as many
as six cylinders. Its operating cycle is the Otto Cycle.
DIESEL ENGINES
Diesel Engines are also internal-combustion engines that use diesel of gasoline. The
diesel fuel is injected as a fine spray into the cylinder where the air had been compressed to
about 540oC. The heat from the compressed air is sufficient to ignite the fuel. This eliminates
the need for a spark plug as in a gas engine. Its operating cycle is the Diesel Cycle.
Gasoline and diesel engines may be of two types – four-stroke or two-stroke. The four-
stroke engine has the intake, compression, power, and exhaust strokes. The two-stroke type
combines the first two strokes into one and the last two strokes into another stroke. The
gasoline and diesel engines are usually water-cooled by a system consisting of a radiator
which circulates the water around the engine.
51
THERMODYNAMICS
REFRIGERATORS AND HEAT PUMPS
In a natural process, heat always flows from a high-temperature region to a low-

temperature region. To make heat flow in the reverse direction, external effort must be made,
or work has to be done in order to make heat flow in the opposite direction. This is the reverse
of the heat engine, which is called the heat pump or a refrigerator.
High Temperature Reservoir,

Heat Input, 𝐐
HEAT PUMP Work Input, W
Heat Output, 𝐐
Low Temperature Reservoir,
Figure 3.5: Refrigerator/Heat Pump Diagram
The result is that work is done on the system; heat is extracted from s low-
temperature source and rejected to a high-temperature source. The cycle and the heat and
work transfer are indicated in Figure 3.5. In this mode of operation, the cycle works like a
refrigerator or heat pump.
To determine how much heat is extracted, the coefficient of performance (COP) can be
calculated using the equation below.
𝐐 𝐐
𝐎𝐏 = or 𝐎𝐏 = =𝐐
− 𝐖 −𝐐
Typically, the thermodynamics system in a refrigerator analysis is a working fluid, a

refrigerant that circulates around a loop, as shown in Figure 3.6. The substance must be a gas
that is easily condensed by pressure: ammonia, sulfur dioxide, or Freon. Freon (CCl2 F2) is
commonly used as a refrigerant. The internal energy of the refrigerant is alternately raised
and lowered by the devices in the loop. The working fluid is colder than the refrigerator air at
one point and hotter than the surroundings at another point. Thus, heat will flow in the
appropriate direction.
Beginning at the
Expander
top right corner of
Heat Exchangers
the diagram, let’s
FOOD Air in explain the in more
room
Air inside detail. First, the
refrigerator
refrigerant passes
Compressor through a small
turbine or through an
expansion valve. In
Electrical Energy
these devices, work is
done by the
Figure3.6: Thermodynamic System in a Refrigerator refrigerant so
its internal energy is lowered to a point where the temperature of the refrigerant is lower than
that of the air in the refrigerator. A heat exchanger is used to transfer energy from the inside of
the refrigerator to the cold refrigerant. This lowers the internal energy of the inside and raises
52
THERMODYNAMICS
the internal energy of the refrigerant. Then a pump or compressor is used to do work on the
refrigerant, adding additional energy to it, and thus, further raising its internal energy.
Electrical energy is used to power the pump or compressor. The internal energy of the
refrigerant is raised to a point where its temperature is hotter than the temperature of the
surroundings. The refrigerant is then passed through a heat exchanger (often coils at the back
of the refrigerator) so that energy is transferred from the refrigerant to the surroundings. As a
result, the internal energy of the refrigerant is reduced, and the internal energy of the
surroundings is increased. It is, at this point, where the internal energy of the contents of the
refrigerator and the energy used to drive the compressor or pump are transferred to the
surroundings. The refrigerant then continues on to the turbine or expansion valve, repeating
the cycle (Aquino, et al., 2012).
Example:
1. An ideal refrigerator runs between 0oC and 25oC. What is the coefficient of
performance of this refrigerator?
Given: TC = 0oC or 273 K
TH = 25oC or 298 K
Find: COP
Solution:
𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝐊
𝐎𝐏 = =
− (𝟐𝟗𝟖𝑲−𝟐𝟕𝟑𝑲)
COP = 10.9
3.3 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
There are many ways of stating the second law of thermodynamics, but all are
equivalent because these all deal with the direction and restriction on what a system can do.
Rudolf Clausius statement of the second law is:
Heat generally cannot flow spontaneously from a material of lower temperature to

material of higher temperature.
In simple words, heat will flow from hot to cold naturally unless an external work is
applied to the system. From this statement, it is possible for heat to flow from cold to hot, but
an external effort must be made to do that. An example of this is the refrigerator, which will be
discussed later.
Another statement of the second law is applied to the heat engine. From the previous
lesson, the heat engine must absorb heat from a high-temperature body then performs work
and release heat to a low-temperature body. The amount of work performed by the heat
engine is equal to the difference of the heat absorbed and the amount of heat released. This is
the conservation of energy as applied to the heat engine.
The equation (W = QH – QC) also suggests that the amount of work can be increased if
less heat will be released to the low-temperature body. If no heat is released to the low-
temperature body, then all heat absorbed will be converted to heat. Unfortunately, this is
impossible. This restriction is stated in the Kelvin statement of the second law of
thermodynamics which is:
It is impossible to convert heat completely into work in a cyclic process.
53
THERMODYNAMICS
A cyclic process is a repeated thermodynamic process that returns the system to its
same initial condition. In order for a cycle to be completed, the heat engine must release heat
to the low-temperature body; otherwise, the cycle will stop. Work can never be equal to the
heat absorbed by the system. Another way of stating this is: it is impossible to build a 100%
efficient heat engine.
Sadi Carnot analyzed the cycle of a heat engine, and he discovered that under ideal
conditions, the highest possible efficiency could be calculated using the equation below.
𝐎 − 𝐎𝐋𝐃
𝐈𝐝𝐞𝐚𝐥 𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 ( 𝐚𝐫𝐧𝐨𝐭 𝐄𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲) = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝐎
Where THOT is the temperature of the high-temperature body and TCOLD is the
temperature of the low-temperature body (temperatures must be expressed in Kelvin).
This efficiency can only be reached by the ideal heat engine, which is the Carnot
engine. Even in the ideal condition, the only way to get a 100% efficient engine is to have a
low-temperature body equal to 0 Kelvin, which is impossible.
Carnot’s efficiency (ideal efficiency) sets the limit to all heat engines. Furthermore, the
higher the temperature of the high-temperature body compared to the temperature of the
low-temperature body, the higher will be the efficiency.
The thermodynamic efficiency of a heat engine can be calculated using the equation
below:
𝑊
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑥 100%
𝑄𝐻
𝑄𝐻 − 𝑄𝐶
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑥 100%
𝑄𝐻
𝑸𝑪
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = 𝟏 − 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑸𝑯
The equation above shows that the efficiency of a heat engine can be increased by
adding more heat or by reducing the heat given up by the system.
Examples:
1. Hot gas is injected into an engine at 300oC and exhaust at 700C. What is the highest
efficiency possible for this engine?
Given: TH = 300oC or 573 K
TC = 700C or 343 K
Find: Highest efficiency (Carnot efficientcy)
Solution:
TH − TC
Carnot efficiency = x 100%
TH
573 𝐾− 343 𝐾
= x 100
573 𝐾
= 40.1%
54
THERMODYNAMICS
2. Calculate the Carnot efficiency of a heat engine that has fluid temperature of 2,100K
down to 600 K. If this same engie turns 950 J of input energy into 400 J of useful work,
what is its thermodynamic efficiency?
Given: TH = 2,100 K QH = 950 J
TC = 600 K W = 400 J
Find: a. Carnot Efficiency
b. Thermodynamic Efficiency
Solution:
2,100 𝐾− 600 𝐾
a. Carnot Efficiency = x 100 = 71.4%
2,100 𝐾
𝑊 400 𝐽
b. Thermodynamic Efficiency = 𝑥 100% = 𝑥 100 = 42.1%
𝑄𝐻 950 𝐽
ENTROPY
The first statement of the second law says that heat flows in one direction in a natural
process. The second statement tells us that a heat engine will always produce waste heat;
therefore, no heat engine can convert all the absorbed heat into mechanical energy.
The third statement is about the quality of energy as it is transformed from one form
to another. As energy is converted, some will always go to waste, and only a portion will be
beneficial. As this continues, the energy tends to be less and less useful; thus, becoming
disorganized. The third statement for the second law provides that:
Natural systems tend to proceed toward a state of greater disorder.
The measure of this degree of disorder is known as entropy. The statement above is
also known as the law of entropy. According to the second law, entropy always increases. The
amount of disorder depends on the amount of heat absorbed by a system and its absolute
temperature.
∆𝐐
∆𝐒 =
where:
∆S = change in entropy of a system (cal/K)(J/K)
∆Q = amount of heat absorbed (cal or J)
T = the absolute temperature of a system (K)
Entropy is positive if heat is absorbed and negative if heat is released. The entropy of a
system can increase or decrease, but the entropy of the universe is always increasing.
Example:
1. Find the change in the entropy of ice that absorbs 3.34x105 J of heat at 0oC.
Given: ∆Q = 3.34x105 J
T = 0oC or 273 K
Find: ∆S
Solution:
∆𝐐 3.34x105 J
∆𝐒 = =
273 K
= 1,223.44 J/K
Video Presentation https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZsY4WcQOrfk
55
THERMODYNAMICS
ACTIVITY 8
1. Which of the following methods of converting heat into work is the least practical?
c. Atomic reactor c. The bicycle
d. Burning gases d. The steam engine
2. Engines may be run by __________.
a. Gas c. Steam
b. Jet fuel d. Any of the above
3. Which of the following is NOT a part of a steam engine?
a. Boiler c. Cylinder
b. Commutator d. Steam Chest
4. The condensing type of steam engine _________.
a. is a moving steam engine
b. is a stationary steam engine
c. needs a supply of water often
d. allows the used steam to escape
5. A refrigerator __________.
a. removes heat from objects
b. uses a noncondensing-type motor
c. primarily keeps the heat from going inside
d. has a condenser located inside the refrigerator
6. It is not possible for a refrigerator to transfer heat from a colder body to another body at
a high temperature unless ________.
a. The body is first cooled.
b. The engine is first cooled
c. Work is done by the engine
d. Work is done on the other body
7. Two thick slices of bread, when completely oxidized by the body, can supply 2x10 5 cal of
heat. How much work is this equivalent to?
a. 4.19x105 J c. 4.19x1010 J
b. 8.39x105 J d. 8.39x1030 J
8. Whenever heat is converted into another form of energy, or when other forms of energy
are converted to heat, _________.
a. all the original energy is lost
b. only some of the original energy is lost
c. all the original form of energy is converted into the new form
d. all the original form of energy is radiated into the surrounding area
9. Of the methods by which heat may be converted into work, the one which seems to be
the least efficient is the _______.
a. Diesel engine c. Human body
b. Gas engine d. Steam Engine
10. A car engine is classified as an _______________.
a. external combustion engine because it is run from outside the engine
b. external combustion engine because its fuel comes from outside the engine
c. internal combustion engine because it is inside the compartment of the car
d. internal combustion engine because the explosive fuel is ignited inside the cylinder
56
THERMODYNAMICS
ACTIVITY 9
Directions: Solve for what is asked. Show you complete solutions and box the final
answer.
1. Air is blown inside a toy balloon, allowing it to expand from 2.0x10-4 m3 to 6.0x10-4 m3
at a constant pressure of 3.5x105 Pa. How much work is done on the balloon?
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2. An engine with a Carnot efficiency of 35% operates between a high temperature (T H)

and a low temperature, Tc = 350C. Calculate TH.
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57
THERMODYNAMICS
3. An engine releases 3,171 J of heat to the environment while performing 1,250 J of useful
work. What is the thermodynamic efficiency of the engine?
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4. A certain gas releases 300 J of heat at 450C. How much will this heat increase the
entropy of the universe?
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58
THERMODYNAMICS
ACTIVITY 10
Directions: Explain your answer briefly.
1. Explain why placing the air conditioner in the center of the room won’t help to cool the
room?
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2. Can a kitchen be cooled indefinitely by leaving the door of the refrigerator open?
Explain.
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THERMODYNAMICS
REFERENCES
Book
Bookstore, Inc.
Webliography

7/17/2020; 8:35 PM)
(Retrieved: 7/18/2020; 9:30 PM)
 https://courses.lumenlearning.com/physics/chapter/13-2-thermal-expansion-of-
solids-and-liquids/ (Retrieved: 7/18/2020; 10:00 PM)
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZsY4WcQOrfk (Retrieved: 7/18/2020; 10:00 PM)
60

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THERMODYNAMICS

Figure 1.1: The

At the end of the unit, I am able to:

1. relate and differentiate force, work, energy, and power;

Activating Your Prior Knowledge

Figure 1.2: The interconnection of work, power, and energy

Expanding Your Knowledge

The equation for work (W) is given as:

W = work (joules or Nm)

3. What if you needed to raise a dumbbell from the floor to shoulder

Now let’s apply the discussed equation to solve work-related problems.

= (45.0 N)(75.0m)(cos 50.00)

2. For a distance of 5 m, a 50 kg mass crate is moved along a floor with a force of 20 N.

Solution: W = Fd cosθ (since the force applied is completely parallel to the

a. the magnitude of the component of the force acting in the direction of

1.2 TYPES OF ENERGY

The energy may be stored by the object in a variety of forms.

The equation used to solve for kinetic energy is

KE = kinetic energy (joules or Nm, J)

W = ∆𝑲𝑬 = KEfinal(f) – KEinitial(i)

Gravitational Potential Energy is the energy possessed by an object because of its

Gravitational potential energy is energy that depends on the height of an object

GPE = gravitational potential energy (joules or Nm, J)

1.3 WORK-ENERGY CALCULATIONS

WORK AND CHANGE IN KINETIC ENERGY

1. What is the kinetic energy of a 7500 N automobile, which is moving at 55m/s?

Solution: Find the mass using the equation W = mg

WORK AND CHANGE IN GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

Given: m = 400kg hi = 48m hf = 3m

Given: m = 2.5 kg h= 180m g = 9.8m/s2

Solution: GPE = mgh

In Figure 1.7, the same machines were

Therefore, 𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 = 𝑭 𝐯̅s

(𝟖𝟎.𝟎 𝐤𝐠)(𝟗.𝟖𝐦/𝒔𝟐 )(𝟑.𝟖𝐦)

Solution: 𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 = 𝑭 𝐯̅s

Convert the following:

1.5 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

The law of conservation of energy can be expressed as

In solving problems regarding the conservation of mechanical energy, it is important to

1.6 APPLICATIONS OF ENERGY PRINCIPLES

Synthesizing Your Knowledge

Directions: Encircle the letter of the best answer.

3. An object that has potential energy must be ______.

4. An object that has kinetic energy must be _______.

6. Which requires the most amount of work on the brakes of a car?

10. A conservative force may be associated with ______.

Directions: Apply what you know.

Tillery, Bill W. (1992). Introduction to Physics and Chemistry. Brown Publishers.

 https://www.freepik.com/(Retrived: 7/15/2020; 10:30 PM)

Figure 2.1: Common

At the end of the unit, I am able to:

Activating Your Prior Knowledge

Expanding Your Knowledge

Temperature is a relative term. When a cup of coffee is passed on to different people,

The instrument used to measure temperature is the thermometer. In measuring

Determining the object’s temperature with precision requires a standard

Table 2.1: Temperature Scale Comparison

Water boils 100 373 212

CELSIUS (OC) AND FAHRENHEIT (OF) SCALE

TF = 1.8 TC + 32 TC = 0.56 (TF – 32)

THE KELVIN SCALE (ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE)

Given: Tinitial = 40oC Tfinal = 120 oC

b. (K)Tinitial = 40oC + 273 = 313 K (K) Tfinal = 120 oC + 273 = 393 K