INVISIBLE MECHANICS

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INVISIBLE MECHANICS
 CONTENT
1. WORK AND ITS CALCULATION
1.1 Work
1.2 Calculation of Work for Uniform Force
1.3 Work Done by the Gravitational Force
1.4 Work Done by a Spring Force
1.5 Work Done by a General Variable (Non Uniform) Force

2. ENERGY & THEOREM

2.1 Work–Kinetic Energy Theorem
2.2 Work–Mechanical Energy Theorem
2.3 Kinetic Energy
2.4 Potential Energy
2.5 Work and Potential Energy
2.6 Conservative and Non Conservative Forces
2.7 Relation Between Conservative Force and Potential Energy
2.8 Power

3. VERTICAL CIRCULAR MOTION

3.1 Motion of Particle Kept on Fixed Smooth Sphere
3.2 Motion of Particle Attached to a Rigid Rod

4. Questions

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1. Work and Its Calculation
1.1 Work
Work(W) is energy transferred to or from an object via a force acting on the object. Energy transferred to
the object is positive work, and from the object, negative work.

If you accelerate an object to a greater speed by applying a force to the object, you increase the kinetic
energy
K(=1/2 mv²) of the object. Similarly, if you decelerate the object to a lesser speed by applying a force, you
decrease the kinetic energy of the object. We account for these changes in kinetic energy by saying that
your force has transferred energy to the object from yourself or from the object to yourself.

In such a transfer of energy via a force, work W is said to be done on the object by the force.
More formally, we define work as follows:
"Work" then, is transferred energy; "doing work" is the act of transferring the energy. Work has the same
units as energy and is a scalar quantity.

1.2 Calculation of Work for Uniform Force

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 1.3 Work Done by the Gravitational Force

We next examine the work done on an object by the gravitational force acting
on it. Figure 8-7 shows a particle-like tomato of mass m that is thrown
upward with initial speed v, and thus with initial kinetic energy K = 1/2 mv₀².
As the tomato rises, it is slowed by a gravitational force ; that is, the
tomato's kinetic energy decreases because , does work on the tomato as
it rises. Because we can treat the tomato as a particle, we can use Eq. 8-7
(W= Fd cosΦ ) to express the work done during a displacement d. For the
force magnitude , we use mg as the magnitude of . Thus, the work W
done by the gravitational force is

The minus sign tells us that during the object's rise, the gravitational force acting on the object transfers energy in
the amount mgd from the kinetic energy of the object. This is consistent with the slowing of the object as it rises.

After the object has reached its maximum height and is falling back down, the angle Φ between force
and displacement is zero. Thus,

The plus sign tells us that the gravitational force now transfers energy in the amount mgd to the kinetic energy of
the falling object (it speeds up, of course). This is consistent with the speeding up of the object if falls.

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1.4 Work Done by a Spring Force
Consider the situation shown in figure (8.3). One end of a spring is attached to a fixed vertical support and
the other end to a block which can move on a horizontal table. Let x = 0 denote the position of the block
when the spring is in its natural length. We shall calculate the work done on the block by the spring-force as
the block moves from x = 0 to x = x₁.

The force on the block is k times the elongation of the spring. But the elongation changes as the block
moves and so does the force. We cannot take out of the integration . We have to write the
work done during a small interval in which the block moves from x to x + dx. The force in this interval is
kx and the displacement is dx. The force and the displacement are opposite in direction.
So,

during this interval. The total work done as the block is displaced from x=0 to x=x₁ is

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If the block moves from x=x₁ to x=x₂, the limits of integration are x₁ and x₂ and the work done is

Note that if the block is displaced from x, to x2 and brought back to x=x, the work done by the spring-force
is zero. The work done during the return journey is negative of the work during the onward journey. The
net work done by the spring-force in a round trip is zero.

Three positions of a spring are shown in figure (8.4). In (i) the spring is in its natural length, in (ii) it is
compressed by an amount x and in (iii) it is elongated by an amount x. Work done by the spring-force on
the block in various situations is shown in the following table.

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1.5 Work Done by a General Variable (Non Uniform) Force

When the force F on a particle-like object depends on the position of the object, the work done by F
on the object while the object moves from an initial position rᵢ ,with coordinates (xᵢ , yᵢ , zᵢ) to a final
position rⱼ with coordinates (xⱼ , yⱼ , zⱼ) must be found by integrating the force. If we assume that
component Fₓ may depend on x but not on y or z, component Fᵧ may depend on y but not on x or z,
and component F₂ may depend on z but not on x or y, then the work is

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2. ENERGY & THEOREM
2.1 Work–Kinetic Energy Theorem

These statements are known traditionally as the work-kinetic energy theorem for particles. They hold for both
positive and negative work: If the net work done on a particle is positive, then the particle's kinetic energy
increases by the amount of the work. If the net work done is negative, then the particle's kinetic energy decreases
by the amount of the work.
For example, if the kinetic energy of a particle is initially 5 J and there is a net transfer of 2 J to the particle
(positive net work), the final kinetic energy is 7 J. If, instead, there is a net transfer of 2 J from the particle
(negative net work), the final kinetic energy is 3 J.

2.2 WORK–MECHANICAL ENERGY THEOREM

We have learnt from work-kinetic energy theorem that if some forces act on a body, then the sum of the work done
by individual forces that are acting on it is equal to the change in kinetic energy

If some of them are conservative and others are non-conservative, then for conservative forces, we can write the
potential energy as follows:

The term on RHS is often called mechanical energy. To conclude, effect of a force can either be written as work on LHS
or it can come as potential energy on RHS.

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 2.3 KINETIC ENERGY
Kinetic energy K is energy associated with the state of motion of an object. The faster the object moves, the greater is its
kinetic energy. When the object is stationary, its kinetic energy is zero. For an object of mass m whose speed v is well
below the speed of light,

2.4 POTENTIAL ENERGY

 onsider the example of the two charged particles A and B taken in the previous section. Suppose at some instant t1 the
C
particles are at positions A, B and are going away from each other with speeds v1 and v2

 he kinetic energy of the system is K1. We call the positions of the particles at time t1 as configuration-1. The particle B
T
attracts A and hence the speed v1 decreases as time passes. Similarly, the speed v2 of B decreases. Thus, the kinetic
energy of the two-particle system decreases as time passes. Suppose at a time t2, the particles are at A' and B', the speeds
have changed to v1 and v, and the kinetic energy becomes K2. We call the positions of the particles at time t2 as
configuration-2. The kinetic energy of the system is decreased by K1-K2.

 owever, if you wait for some more time, the particles return to the original positions A and B, i.e., in configuration-1. At this
H
time, say tg, the particles move towards each other with speeds v, and v2. Their kinetic energy is again K1.

 hen the particles were in configuration-1 the kinetic energy was K1. When they reached configuration-2 it decreased to
W
K2. The kinetic energy has decreased but is not lost for ever. We just have to wait. When the particles return to
configuration-1 at time to, the kinetic energy again becomes K1. It seems meaningful and reasonable if we think of yet
another kind of energy which depends on the configuration. We call this as the potential energy of the system. Some kinetic
energy was converted into potential energy when the system passed from configuration-1 to configuration-2. As the system
returns to configuration-1, this potential energy is converted back into kinetic energy. The sum of the kinetic energy and the
potential energy remains constant.

2.5 WORK AND POTENTIAL ENERGY

Potential energy is energy that is associated with the configuration of a system in which a conservative force acts. When the
conservative force does work W on a particle within the system, the change ΔU in the potential energy of the system is

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 2.6 Conservative and Nonconservative Forces
 e divide the forces in two categories
W
(a) conservative forces and (b) non-conservative forces.
If the work done by a force during a round trip of a system is always zero, the force is said to be conservative. Otherwise, it
is called non-conservative.

Conservative force can also be defined as follows:

If the work done by a force depends only on the initial and final states and not on the path taken, it is called a conservative
force.

Thus, the force of gravity, Coulomb force and the force of spring are conservative forces, as the work done by these forces
are zero in a round trip. The force of friction is nonconservative because the work done by the friction is not zero in a round
trip.

2.7 Relation Between Conservative Force and Potential Energy

If we know the potential energy function U(x) for a system in which a one-dimensional force F(x) acts on a particle, we
can find the force as

If U(x) is given on a graph, then at any value of x, the force F(x) is the negative of the slope of the curve there and the
kinetic energy of the particle is given by:

A turning point is a point x at which the particle reverses its motion (there, K = 0).

The particle is in equilibrium at points where the slope of the U(x) curve is zero (there, F(x) = 0).

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2.8 POWER
The power due to a force is the rate at which that force does work on an object.

If the force does work W during a time interval Δt, the average power due to the force over that time interval is

Instantaneous power is the instantaneous rate of doing work:

For a force F at an angle to the direction of travel of the instantaneous velocity 1, the instantaneous power is

3. VERTICAL CIRCULAR MOTION

3.1 Motion of Particle Kept on Fixed Smooth Sphere

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3.2 Motion of Particle Attached to a Rigid Rod
 onsider a mass tied by a light rod about O as in Fig. 8-41. Here the problem is simply of energy because rod can both pull
C
and push so we can have any value of tension wed any sign.

Different results are given below considering only energy.

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