Definition and Mathematics of Work

In the first three units of The Physics Classroom, we utilized Newton's laws to analyze the motion of
objects. Force and mass information were used to determine the acceleration of an object. Acceleration
information was subsequently used to determine information about the velocity or displacement of an
object after a given period of time. In this manner, Newton's laws serve as a useful
model for analyzing motion and making predictions about the final state of an object's
motion. In this unit, an entirely different model will be used to analyze the motion of
objects. Motion will be approached from the perspective of work and energy. The
affect that work has upon the energy of an object (or system of objects) will be
investigated; the resulting velocity and/or height of the object can then be predicted
from energy information. In order to understand this work-energy approach to the
analysis of motion, it is important to first have a solid understanding of a few basic terms. Thus, Lesson 1
of this unit will focus on the definitions and meanings of such terms as work, mechanical energy,
potential energy, kinetic energy, and power.

When a force acts upon an object to cause a displacement of the object, it is said that work was done
upon the object. There are three key ingredients to work - force, displacement, and cause. In order for a
force to qualify as having done work on an object, there must be a displacement and the force must cause
the displacement. There are several good examples of work that can be observed in everyday life - a
horse pulling a plow through the field, a father pushing a grocery cart down the aisle of a grocery store, a
freshman lifting a backpack full of books upon her shoulder, a weightlifter lifting a barbell above his
head, an Olympian launching the shot-put, etc. In each case described here there is a force exerted upon
an object to cause that object to be displaced.

Read the following five statements and determine whether or not they represent examples of work.
Then click on the See Answer button to view the answer.

Statement Answer with

Explanation
A teacher applies a force to a wall and becomes exhausted.
 
 
A book falls off a table and free falls to the ground.
 
 
A waiter carries a tray full of meals above his head by one arm straight across the
room at constant speed. (Careful! This is a very difficult question that will be
discussed in more detail later.)  

 
A rocket accelerates through space.
 
 
 

Mathematically, work can be expressed by the following equation.

where F is the force, d is the displacement, and the angle (theta) is defined as the angle between the force
and the displacement vector. Perhaps the most difficult aspect of the above equation is the angle "theta."
The angle is not just any 'ole angle, but rather a very specific angle. The angle measure is defined as the
angle between the force and the displacement. To gather an idea of it's meaning, consider the following
three scenarios.

 Scenario A: A force acts rightward upon an

object as it is displaced rightward. In such
an instance, the force vector and the
displacement vector are in the same
direction. Thus, the angle between F and d
is 0 degrees.

 Scenario B: A force acts leftward upon an

object that is displaced rightward. In such
an instance, the force vector and the
displacement vector are in the opposite
direction. Thus, the angle between F and d
is 180 degrees.

 Scenario C: A force acts upward on an object as it is displaced rightward. In such an instance, the
force vector and the displacement vector are at right angles to each other. Thus, the angle between
F and d is 90 degrees.

To Do Work, Forces Must Cause Displacements

Let's consider Scenario C above in more detail. Scenario C involves

a situation similar to the waiter who carried a tray full of meals
above his head by one arm straight across the room at constant
speed. It was mentioned earlier that the waiter does not do work
upon the tray as he carries it across the room. The force supplied by
the waiter on the tray is an upward force and the displacement of the
tray is a horizontal displacement. As such, the angle between the
force and the displacement is 90 degrees. If the work done by the
waiter on the tray were to be calculated, then the results would be 0.
Regardless of the magnitude of the force and displacement, F*d*cosine 90 degrees is 0 (since the cosine
of 90 degrees is 0). A vertical force can never cause a horizontal displacement; thus, a vertical force does
not do work on a horizontally displaced object!!

It can be accurately noted that the waiter's hand did push forward on the tray for a brief period of time to
accelerate it from rest to a final walking speed. But once up to speed, the tray will stay in its straight-line
motion at a constant speed without a forward force. And if the only force exerted upon the tray during the
constant speed stage of its motion is upward, then no work is done upon the tray. Again, a vertical force
does not do work on a horizontally displaced object.

The equation for work lists three variables - each variable is associated with one of
the three key words mentioned in the definition of work (force, displacement, and
cause). The angle theta in the equation is associated with the amount of force that
causes a displacement. As mentioned in a previous unit, when a force is exerted on
an object at an angle to the horizontal, only a part of the force contributes to (or
causes) a horizontal displacement. Let's consider the force of a chain pulling
upwards and rightwards upon Fido in order to drag Fido to the right. It is only the
horizontal component of the tension force in the chain that causes Fido to be
displaced to the right. The horizontal component is found by multiplying the force
F by the cosine of the angle between F and d. In this sense, the cosine theta in the
work equation relates to the cause factor - it selects the portion of the force that
actually causes a displacement.

The Meaning of Theta

When determining the measure of the angle in the work equation, it is

important to recognize that the angle has a precise definition - it is the angle
between the force and the displacement vector. Be sure to avoid mindlessly
using any 'ole angle in the equation. A common physics lab involves
applying a force to displace a cart up a ramp to the top of a chair or box. A
force is applied to a cart to displace it up the incline at constant speed.
Several incline angles are typically used; yet, the force is always applied
parallel to the incline. The displacement of the cart is also parallel to the
incline. Since F and d are in the same direction, the angle theta in the work
equation is 0 degrees. Nevertheless, most students experienced the strong
temptation to measure the angle of incline and use it in the equation. Don't
forget: the angle in the equation is not just any 'ole angle. It is defined as the
angle between the force and the displacement vector.

 
The Meaning of Negative Work

On occasion, a force acts upon a moving object to hinder a displacement. Examples might include a car
skidding to a stop on a roadway surface or a baseball runner sliding to a stop on the infield dirt. In such
instances, the force acts in the direction opposite the objects motion in order to slow it down. The force
doesn't cause the displacement but rather hinders it. These situations involve what is commonly called
negative work. The negative of negative work refers to the numerical value that results when values of F,
d and theta are substituted into the work equation. Since the force vector is directly opposite the
displacement vector, theta is 180 degrees. The cosine(180 degrees) is -1 and so a negative value results
for the amount of work done upon the object. Negative work will become important (and more
meaningful) in Lesson 2 as we begin to discuss the relationship between work and energy.

Units of Work

Whenever a new quantity is introduced in physics, the standard metric units associated with that quantity
are discussed. In the case of work (and also energy), the standard metric unit is the Joule (abbreviated J).
One Joule is equivalent to one Newton of force causing a displacement of one meter. In other words,

The Joule is the unit of work.

1 Joule = 1 Newton * 1 meter
1J=1N*m
In fact, any unit of force times any unit of displacement is equivalent to a unit of work. Some nonstandard
units for work are shown below. Notice that when analyzed, each set of units is equivalent to a force unit
times a displacement unit.

In summary, work is done when a force acts upon an object to cause a displacement. Three quantities
must be known in order to calculate the amount of work. Those three quantities are force, displacement
and the angle between the force and the displacement.

Calculating the Amount of Work Done by Forces

In a previous part of Lesson 1, work was described as taking place when a force acts upon an object to
cause a displacement. When a force acts to cause an object to be displaced, three quantities must be
known in order to calculate the work. Those three quantities are force, displacement and the angle
between the force and the displacement. The work is subsequently calculated as
force•displacement•cosine(theta) where theta is the angle between the force and the displacement vectors.
In this part of Lesson 1, the concepts and mathematics of work will be applied in order to analyze a
variety of physical situations.

Check Your Understanding

Express your understanding of the concept and mathematics of work by answering the following
questions. When done, click the button to view the answers.

1. Apply the work equation to determine the amount of work done by the applied force in each of the
three situations described below.

2. On many occasions, there is more than one force acting upon an object. A free-body diagram is a
diagram that depicts the type and the direction of all the forces acting upon an object. The following
descriptions and their accompanying free-body diagrams show the forces acting upon an object. For each
case, indicate which force(s) are doing work upon the object. Then calculate the work done by these
forces.

Free-Body Forces
Amount of
Doing Work
Work Done
Diagram
on the
by Each Force
Object
A 10-N force is applied to push a block across a friction free surface for a
displacement of 5.0 m to the right.

A 10-N frictional force slows a moving block to a stop after a

displacement of 5.0 m to the right.

A 10-N force is applied to push a block across a frictional surface at

constant speed for a displacement of 5.0 m to the right.

An approximately 2-kg object is sliding at constant speed across a friction

free surface for a displacement of 5 m to the right.

An approximately 2-kg object is pulled upward at constant speed by a 20-

N force for a vertical displacement of 5 m.

3. Before beginning its initial descent, a roller coaster car is always pulled up the first hill to a high initial
height. Work is done on the car (usually by a chain) to achieve this initial height. A coaster designer is
considering three different incline angles at which to drag the 2000-kg car train to the top of the 60-meter
high hill. In each case, the force applied to the car will be applied parallel to the hill. Her critical question
is: which angle would require the most work? Analyze the data, determine the work done in each case,
and answer this critical question.

Angle Force Distance Work (J)

4
a. 35 deg 1.12 x 10 N 105 m
 b. 45 deg 1.39 x 104 N 84.9 m
c. 55 deg 1.61 x 104 N 73.2 m

4. Ben Travlun carries a 200-N suitcase up three flights of stairs (a height of 10.0 m) and then pushes it
with a horizontal force of 50.0 N at a constant speed of 0.5 m/s for a horizontal distance of 35.0 meters.
How much work does Ben do on his suitcase during this entire motion?

5. A force of 50 N acts on the block at the angle shown in the diagram. The block moves a horizontal
distance of 3.0 m. How much work is done by the applied force?

6. How much work is done by an applied force to lift a 15-Newton block 3.0 meters vertically at a
constant speed?

7. A student with a mass of 80.0 kg runs up three flights of stairs in 12.0 sec. The student has gone a
vertical distance of 8.0 m. Determine the amount of work done by the student to elevate his body to this
height. Assume that her speed is constant.

 
8. Calculate the work done by a 2.0-N force (directed at a 30° angle to the
vertical) to move a 500 gram box a horizontal distance of 400 cm across a rough
floor at a constant speed of 0.5 m/s. (HINT: Be cautious with the units.)

9. A tired squirrel (mass of 1 kg) does push-ups by applying a force to elevate its center-of-mass by 5 cm.
Estimate the number of push-ups that a tired squirrel must do in order to do a approximately 5.0 Joules of
work.

 Definition Of Work
Work is the transfer of energy.

In physics we say that work is done on an object when you transfer energy to that object. For
introductory thinking, this is the best definition of work.

If you put energy into an object, then you do work on that object.

If a first object is the agent that gives energy to a second object, then the first object does
work on the second object. The energy goes from the first object into the second object. At
first we will say that if an object is standing still, and you get it moving, then you have put
energy into that object.

For example, a golfer uses a club and gets a stationary golf ball moving when he or she hits
the ball. The club does work on the golf ball as it strikes the ball. Energy leaves the club and
enters the ball. This is a transfer of energy. Thus, we say that the club did work on the ball.

And, before the ball was struck, the golfer did work on the club. The club was initially
standing still, and the golfer got it moving when he or she swung the club.
So, the golfer does work on the club, transferring energy into the club, making it move. The
club does work on the ball, transferring energy into the ball, getting it moving.

Formula For Work

In almost all cases considered when studying mechanical forms of energy, when work is done
on an object a force is applied to the object, and the object is displaced while this force is
acting upon it. That is, the object moves as a result of a force being placed on it.

In the previous golf example the club places a force on the ball, and this force acts on the ball
over the short distance through which the club and the ball are in contact as the ball is being
hit. Energy is transferred as the force acts over this displacement.

The amount of work is calculated by multiplying the force times the displacement. That
formula looks like this:

At first we will consider only forces that are aimed in the same direction as the displacement.
For example, we will imagine an object being pushed horizontally to the right, and the object
will be moving horizontally to the right as a result of this applied force.
Below is an animation that shows just that. The force vector is drawn in blue. It is pushing the
object to the right. This force is applied over a displacement. The displacement vector is
shown in red. The object starts out standing still. While the force is acting on the object the
object picks up speed, that is, it accelerates. When the force quits acting the object quits
picking up speed, that is, it quits accelerating.

Notice that in the above animation the object picks up speed while the force is acting upon it.
This picking up of speed means that the object is gaining more and more energy as the force
is acting on it. That is, as the force is acting upon the object, energy is being transferred to the
object. Therefore work is being done on the object. Whatever we might imagine is providing
the force is the agent that is doing work on the object. In our above discussion the force could
be applied by the golf club, and the object in the animation represents the golf ball. This, of
course, would need to be thought of as in slow motion!

Now, since work is calculated as the product of force times displacement, many different
combinations of forces and displacements could yield the same work, or the same energy
transfer. For example, in the following animation a larger force acts over a shorter
displacement, yet the same amount of work is ultimately done as in our first example above.

And in this next animation a smaller force and a larger displacement that is present is the first
animation is demonstrated. Again, the same amount of work is done. The same amount of
energy is transferred.
Later, we will see what happens when a force is applied at an angle to the displacement. For a
while, though, we will consider only forces in the same direction as the displacement.

Sample Calculation
How much work is done if a force of 20 N is used to displace an object 3 m?

W=F·d Formula for work.

W = (20 N)(3 m) Plug in values for force and displacement.
Work equals 60 units of energy transferred. Looks
like the unit for energy transferred, and thus, the unit
W = 60 N-m
for energy, is Newton-meter. However, this is not
so.
Energy units are called Joules, 1 Joule is equal to 1
W = 60 Joules Newton-meter. A Joule is the MKS metric unit for
energy.
W = 60 J Joule is abbreviated J.