WAVES & OSCILLATIONS

1
 Waves & Oscillations
LECTURE CONTENTS
No.
1 Simple harmonic motion (SHM), Differential equation of
SHM, Solution of differential equation of SHM, Velocity and
acceleration of SHM
2 Examples of SHM: Spring-mass system, Torsional
Pendulum
3 Total energy and average energy of SHM

4 Combination of simple harmonic motions, Lissajous figures

5 Damped harmonic oscillation, Quality factor, Logarithmic
decrement
6 Forced oscillation, Resonance
7 Two-body oscillations, Reduced mass
8 Wave motion, Progressive wave equation and differential
equation of a progressive wave
9 Energy, power and intensity of wave motion, Stationary
wave, analytical treatment of stationary wave
10 Energy of stationary wave, Group velocity and phase
velocity
11 Architectural acoustics, Reverberation and Sabine’s
reverberation formula 2
 DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS
A system executing simple harmonic
motion is called a harmonic
oscillator. A harmonic oscillator
produces oscillations.
Body is surrounded by air
Vibrating body experiencing some
opposing force in the form of air friction

The oscillations can be of two types:

➢ Undamped Oscillation Vibrating body does work against this
opposing force
➢ Damped oscillation

Question: What are damped oscillations? To do work, energy is needed

Oscillations in the presence of frictional
forces are called damped oscillations.
It results in dissipation of the energy of Vibrating body uses its energy to do the
work against this opposing force
an oscillator.

It loses energy

3
 DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS
UNDAMPED OSCILLATION DAMPED OSCILLATION

1. The Oscillations whose amplitude 1. The Oscillations whose amplitude

remains constant with time are called decreases gradually with time are called
undamped oscillations. damped oscillations.
2. Undamped oscillations will oscillate 2. Damped oscillations do not continue for a
indefinitely. longer time, die out eventually.
3. In undamped oscillation, energy of the 3. Damping is progressive diminution of
vibrating object does not get dissipated. amplitude of oscillations in an oscillatory
Hence, there is no power loss. system, caused by dissipation of stored
energy.
4. If the bob of a pendulum is displaced in 4. Example of a damped oscillator is a
vacuum and then released, the bob will swinging pendulum, in which the vibrations
continue to execute SHM of constant slows down and stops over time.
amplitude.
Amplitude

Amplitude

Time Time
4
 DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS
If an oscillator moves in a resistive medium, its amplitude goes on
decreasing. So, the energy of the oscillator is used in doing work against
the resistance of the medium. The motion of the oscillator is then said to
be damped.

The damping force or the resistive force is proportional to the velocity of

the oscillator.
Damping force is given by,
𝑑𝑥
𝑓𝑟 ∝ −𝑣 = −𝑏
𝑑𝑡
Where 𝑏 is the damping constant giving the strength of damping. Its value
depends upon the properties of the medium, such as the density, shape,
and dimension of object.

5
 DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS
EQUATION OF MOTION OF DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATOR:
In the case of the damped harmonic oscillator, two forces act on it.
(i) Elastic restoring force
(ii) Damping force
A frictional drag force is one which is always directed in the opposite
direction to the instantaneous velocity of the object upon which it acts, and
is directly proportional to the magnitude of this velocity.

The equation of motion of damped oscillator is given by,

𝐹 = 𝐹𝑒 + 𝐹𝑟
➢Restoring force is
Differential equation of damped harmonic oscillator is: always proportional
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 to the displacement
𝑚 2 = −𝑏 − 𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
of the body.
𝑑2𝑥 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 𝑘
+ + 𝑥=0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚
➢Damping force is
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
+ 2𝜆 + 𝜔 𝑥 = 0 … … … … … … (1) proportional to the
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑏 𝑘 velocity of the body.
Where, 2λ = and 𝜔2 =
𝑚 𝑚
6
 DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS
To solve equation (1) let us take the trial solution,
′
𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑚 𝑡 … … … … … … … . (2)
Substituting this in equation (1) we get,
𝑑𝑥 ′
𝑚′2 𝑥 + 2𝜆𝑚′ 𝑥 + 𝜔2 𝑥 = 0 Here, = 𝐴𝑚′ 𝑒 𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑚′ 𝑥
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2𝑥 ′2 𝑒 𝑚′ 𝑡 = 𝑚′2 𝑥
𝑜𝑟, 𝑚´2 + 2𝜆𝑚´ + 𝜔2 = 0 = 𝐴𝑚
𝑑𝑡 2
′ −𝑏± 𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
∴ 𝑚 = −𝜆 ± 𝜆2 − 𝜔2 ∵
2𝑎

𝑚1′ = −𝜆 + 𝜆2 − 𝜔 2

𝑚2′ = −𝜆 − 𝜆2 − 𝜔 2
The two possible solution of equation (1) are,
′
𝑥1 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑚1𝑡
′
𝑥2 = 𝐵𝑒 𝑚2𝑡
The sum of above two solution will satisfy equation (1),
𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2
7
 DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS

𝑚1′ 𝑡 𝑚2′ 𝑡
𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 + 𝐵𝑒

𝑜𝑟, 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 (−𝜆+ 𝜆2 −𝜔2 ) 𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 (−𝜆− 𝜆2 −𝜔2 ) 𝑡

𝜆2 −𝜔2 𝑡 − 𝜆2 −𝜔2 𝑡
𝑜𝑟, 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝑒 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝑒
∴ The general solution is,

The term 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 is an exponentially decreasing term with increasing time. i.e.,
amplitude goes on decreasing with time.

Case I: (Overdamped motion) :

If 𝜆2 > 𝜔2 , the indices of 𝑒 are real and we get,
𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 A𝑒 𝛼𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 , … … … (4) Where, 𝛼 = 𝜆2 − 𝜔 2

8
 DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS
Now, let us replace 𝐴 and 𝐵 by two other constants 𝐶 and 𝛿 such that,
𝑐 𝑐
𝐴 = 𝑒 𝛿 and 𝐵 = 𝑒 −𝛿
2 2
𝑐 𝑐 −𝛿 𝑐 𝑐
∴ 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝑒𝛿 + 𝑒 = (𝑒 𝛿 + 𝑒 −𝛿 ) = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝛿 = 𝐶𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝛿
2 2 2 2
𝑐 𝛿
𝐴 𝑒
And = 2
𝑐 −𝛿 = 𝑒 2𝛿
𝐵 𝑒
2
Using the new constant equation (4) becomes,
𝑐 𝛿 𝛼𝑡 𝑐
𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝑒 𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝛿 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡
2 2
𝑐 −𝜆𝑡 𝛼𝑡+𝛿 − 𝛼𝑡+𝛿
= 𝑒 [𝑒 +𝑒 ]
2
𝑐 −𝜆𝑡
= 𝑒 2cosh(αt + 𝛿)
2
−𝜆𝑡
= 𝐶𝑒 cosh(αt + 𝛿)
𝒙 = 𝑪𝒆−𝝀𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝝀𝟐 − 𝝎𝟐 𝒕 + 𝜹 … … (𝟓)
Equation (5) represents a continuous return of 𝑥 from its maximum value to zero
when 𝑡 = ∞ without oscillation. This type of motion is called the dead beat motion
or overdamped or aperiodic motion.
Example: Dead beat galvanometer, pendulum oscillating in a viscous fluid etc.
9
 DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS
Case II : (Underdamped motion) :
If 𝜆2 < 𝜔2 , indices of 𝑒 are imaginary and equation (3) can be written as,
𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 [𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝜃𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑖𝜃𝑡 ], Here, 𝜃 = (𝜔 2 − 𝜆2 )
𝑜𝑟, 𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 [𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑡 + 𝑖𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑡 + 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑡 − 𝑖𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑡]
= 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 [ 𝐴 + 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑡 + 𝑖 𝐴 − 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑡]
Let 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾
i 𝐴 − 𝐵 = 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾
𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 [𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑡 + 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑡]
= 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝑎[𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑡]
= 𝑎𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃𝑡 + 𝛾)

In this case 𝑥 alternates in sign and we have periodic motion but the amplitude
continuously diminishes due to the factor 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 . This situation is called
underdamping with the amplitude 𝑎𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 and the frequency 𝜔 2 − 𝜆2 .
1
0
 DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS
Case III: (Critical damped motion)
If 𝜔2 = 𝜆2 , 𝜆2 − 𝜔 2 = 0; 𝑜𝑟, 𝜆 = 𝜔;
From equation (3) can be written as,
𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝜔𝑡 𝐴𝑒 0 + 𝐵𝑒 0 = 𝑒 −𝜔𝑡 𝐴 + 𝐵
This implies that oscillation is decaying without any damping factor which is
impossible. So, the solution breaks down.
Now, we have to consider that 𝜆2 is not quite equal to 𝜔2 , but very close to each
other. Thus, 𝜆2 − 𝜔 2 = ℎ ≈ 0.
From equation (3),
𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝐴𝑒 ℎ𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 −ℎ𝑡
ℎ2 𝑡 2 ℎ3 𝑡 3 ℎ2 𝑡 2 ℎ3 𝑡 3
= 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝐴(1 + ℎ𝑡 + + + ⋯ ) + 𝐵(1 − ℎ𝑡 + − + ⋯ )+)
2! 3! 2! 3!

= 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝐴(1 + ℎ𝑡) + 𝐵(1 − ℎ𝑡)

∴ 𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝐴 − 𝐵 ℎ𝑡 , ……….(7)

1
1
 DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS

Let, 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐴´ and 𝐴 − 𝐵 ℎ = 𝐵´
∴ 𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝐴´ + 𝐵´ 𝑡 …………………(8)
At amplitude, 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎 (𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 0)
𝑑𝑥
And =0 at t = 0
𝑑𝑡
Applying these two conditions in equation (8),
𝑎 = 𝑒 0 (𝐴´ + 𝐵´ × 0)
or, 𝐴´ = 𝑎
𝑑𝑥
= −𝜆𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝐴´ + 𝐵´ 𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝐵´
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
⃒ = −𝜆𝑒 0 𝐴´ + 𝐵´ × 0 + 𝑒 0 𝐵´ = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑡=0
Or, −𝜆𝐴´ + 𝐵´ = 0 or, 𝐵´ = 𝜆𝐴´ or, 𝐵´ = 𝜆𝑎
Substituting these values equation (8) can be written as,
𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝑎 + 𝜆𝑎𝑡
∴ 𝒙 = 𝒂 𝒆−𝝀𝒕 𝟏 + 𝝀𝒕 ,…………………(9)
12
 DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS

This solution represents a continuous return of 𝑥 from its maximum amplitude to

zero. The second term in equation (9) decays less rapidly than the first term. As
time increases the exponential factor 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 dominates and the displacement
decreases rapidly reaching the value zero for a finite value of 𝑡. The oscillator just
ceases to oscillate and its motion becomes aperiodic or non-oscillatory. It is called
critical damping.

13
 DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS
Logarithmic decrement of damped oscillatory system:
Let us consider decrement of the successive amplitudes, at intervals of time
𝑇 𝜋
= .Let the magnitude of successive amplitudes be 𝐴1 ,𝐴2 ,𝐴3 , etc. Using
2 𝜔
the relation 𝑎 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 for amplitude we have,
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3
Time Amplitude ∴ = = = 𝑒 𝜆𝑇/2 = Constant, since 𝜆
𝐴2 𝐴3 𝐴4
and 𝑇 are constants for a given motion.
𝑡=0 𝐴1 = 𝑎

𝑇 𝜋 Putting, 𝑒 𝜆𝑇/2 = 𝑑 we have,

𝐴2 = 𝑎𝑒 −𝜆𝑇/2 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3
𝑡= =
2 𝜔 = = =⋯=𝑑
𝐴 2 𝐴3 𝐴4
2𝜋 𝐴3 = 𝑎𝑒 −𝜆𝑇 𝑑 is a constant for the oscillating system and
𝑡=𝑇=
𝜔 called the decrement or damping ratio of the
3𝑇 3𝜋 𝐴4 = 𝑎𝑒 −3𝜆𝑇/2 swing.
𝑡= = 𝜆𝑡
2 𝜔 ∴ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑑 = = 𝜇 𝑜𝑟, 𝑑 = 𝑒 𝜇
2
Here, 𝜇 is the natural logarithm of the
decrement is called the logarithmic
decrement for the oscillation. 14
 DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS

𝐴1
𝐴3
𝐴5 𝐴7

𝐴6
𝐴4

𝐴2

15
 DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS
Quality factor: The quality factor, 𝑄, also referred to as the figure of merit, of a harmonic
oscillator is defined as 2𝜋 times the ratio between the energy stored and the energy lost per
period. It is a dimensionless quantity.

𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝜔
∴ 𝑄 = 2𝜋 =
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 2𝜆

The quality factor measures the quality of a harmonic oscillator. The less the damping, the
better the quality of the harmonic oscillator.

Problem: A massless spring, suspended from a rigid support, carries a mass of 500
gm at its lower end and the system oscillates with a frequency of 5/sec. If the
amplitude is reduced to half its undamped value in 20 sec, calculate (i) the force
constant of the spring, (ii) the relaxation time of the system and (iii) its quality factor.

Solution:

(i) The force constant 𝑘 of the mass-spring system is given by,

𝑘
𝜔= Where, 𝜔 = angular frequency= 2𝜋𝑛 = 2𝜋. 5 = 10𝜋 rad/sec
𝑚 16
 DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS
𝑘
Then, 𝜔2 = 𝑚
Or, k= 𝑚. 𝜔2 = 500 × 10𝜋 2
= 4.934 × 105 dynes/cm.

(ii) The amplitude is reduced to half its undamped value in 20 sec,

𝑎 = 𝑎0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑎 1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑎 = 20 = 𝑎0 𝑒 −20𝜆 𝑜𝑟, 𝑒 −20𝜆 = 2 𝑜𝑟, 20𝜆 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 2 = 0.693
0.693
𝑜𝑟, 𝜆 = 20
1
The relaxation time, 𝜏 =
2𝜆
20
∴ 𝜏 = 2×0.693 = 14.44 𝑠𝑒𝑐 (Ans.)

(iii) The quality factor,

𝜔 10𝜋×20
𝑄 = 2𝜆 = 2×0.693 = 453.7 (Ans.)

17