7 – Applications of HOLDE

ES 21: Differential Equations for Engineers

David A. Agbayani

Note: These lecture slides are not meant to be published.

 I. Simple Harmonic Motion
• Hooke’s Law states that the
force needed to stretch or
compress a spring (or an elastic
material) by some distance is
proportional to that distance.
• When the force is removed, the
spring will return to its original
position, with its length and
other physical properties
unchanged.

Equilibrium
point
 I. Simple Harmonic Motion
• This relationship is described
by the equation
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥
where 𝐹 is the magnitude
of the force,
𝑥 is the length of the
stretch, and
𝑘 is the spring 𝑥
constant.
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
 I. Simple Harmonic Motion
• By Newton’s Second Law, we can express force as

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝐹=𝑚 , 𝑎=
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥
𝐹=𝑚 2
, 𝑣= , 𝑎= 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
where 𝑚 is the mass of the object attached at the end of the
spring,
𝑎 is the acceleration, 𝑣 is the velocity, and 𝑥 is the
distance/position of the object.
 Case 1. Undamped Vibrations
• When a spring is released, it may continue to oscillate forever if there is
no resistant force present. This force is called the damping force.
• If there is no damping force, our equation is simply
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥
𝑑2𝑥
𝑚 2
= −𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2𝑥
𝑚 2
+ 𝑘𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑘
2
+ 𝑥=0
𝑑𝑡 𝑚
• We now have a second order differential equation.
 Case 1. Undamped Vibrations
• To solve this differential • Writing the auxiliary equation,
equation, we assign a constant 𝐷2 𝑥 + 𝛽2 𝑥 = 0
that lumps together the 𝑘Τ𝑚 𝐷2 + 𝛽2 𝑥 = 0
coefficient, i.e. 𝛽 2 = 𝑘Τ𝑚
𝑚2 + 𝛽 2 = 0
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑘 𝑚 = 0 ± 𝛽𝑖
2
+ 𝑥=0
𝑑𝑡 𝑚
𝑥 = 𝑐1 cos 𝛽𝑡 + 𝑐2 sin 𝛽𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥 2
2
+ 𝛽 𝑥=0
𝑑𝑡
 Case 1. Undamped Vibrations
• For initial conditions, 𝑡 = 0, 𝑥 = 𝑣0
𝑥0 , 𝑣 = 𝑣0 , we can solve for = −𝛽𝑐1 sin 𝛽 0 + 𝛽𝑐2 cos 𝛽 0
𝑐1 and 𝑐2 .
• When 𝑡 = 0, 𝑥 = 𝑥0 : 𝑣𝑜 = 𝛽𝑐2
𝑥 = 𝑐1 cos 𝛽𝑡 + 𝑐2 sin 𝛽𝑡 𝑣0
𝑐2 =
𝑥0 = 𝑐1 cos 𝛽(0) + 𝑐2 sin 𝛽(0) 𝛽
𝑐1 = 𝑥0
𝑑𝑥
• When 𝑡 = 0, 𝑣 = 𝑣0 = : • Particular solution is therefore
𝑑𝑡 𝒗𝟎
𝑥 = 𝑐1 cos 𝛽𝑡 + 𝑐2 sin 𝛽𝑡 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜷𝒕 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜷𝒕
𝑑𝑥 𝜷
= −𝛽𝑐1 sin 𝛽𝑡 + 𝛽𝑐2 cos 𝛽𝑡
𝑑𝑡 where 𝛽 = 𝑘Τ
𝑚
 Case 2. Damped Vibrations
• Most springs are not ideal, meaning there is resistance present in
the spring such that it would not oscillate forever when released.
• This resistant force may be in the form of friction, air resistance,
etc.
• We let that resistant force be 𝑅, proportional to the velocity 𝑣 =
𝑑𝑥
.
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
𝑅=𝛾
𝑑𝑡
where 𝑅 is the resistance, and
𝛾 is some proportionality constant.
 Case 2. Damped Vibrations
• The equation from Hooke’s Law • Writing the auxiliary equation,
now becomes 𝐷2 𝑥 + 2𝛼𝐷𝑥 + 𝛽2 𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝐷2 + 2𝛼𝐷 + 𝛽2 𝑥 = 0
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝛾
2 𝑑𝑡 𝑚2 + 2𝛼𝑚 + 𝛽2 = 0
𝑑 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 2
+𝛾 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 2 𝑥 𝛾 𝑑𝑥 𝑘 −2𝛼 ± (2𝛼)2 −4(𝛽2 )
+ + 𝑥=0 𝑚=
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚 2
𝛾 𝑘
• If we let 2𝛼 = and 𝛽 = , 2
𝑚 𝑚
2
𝑑 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑚 = −𝛼 ± 𝛼 2 − 𝛽2
+ 2𝛼 + 𝛽 2𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
 Case 2. Damped Vibrations
𝑚 = −𝛼 ± 𝛼 2 − 𝛽2
• Case 2a: If 𝛼 > 𝛽, the roots of
the auxiliary equation will be
real and distinct.
𝑟1 = −𝛼 + 𝛼 2 − 𝛽2
𝑟2 = −𝛼 − 𝛼 2 − 𝛽2
𝑥 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑟1 𝑡 + 𝑐2 𝑒 𝑟2 𝑡
• Case 2b: If 𝛼 = 𝛽, the roots of the
auxiliary equation will be real and
equal.
𝑚 = −𝛼, 𝑚 = −𝛼
𝑥 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑡 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡
• Case 2c: If 𝛼 < 𝛽, the roots of the
auxiliary equation will be complex
and distinct.
𝑚 = −𝛼 ± 𝛽2 − 𝛼 2 𝑖
𝑥
= 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 ቂ𝑐1 cos 𝛽2 − 𝛼 2 𝑡
+ 𝑐2 sin 𝛽2 − 𝛼 2 𝑡ቃ
 Case 2. Damped Vibrations
• For Case 2c, 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 is called the
damping factor.
• The period of one vibration is
given by
𝑇 = 2𝜋 𝛽2 − 𝛼 2

• For all three cases, as 𝑡 → ∞,

𝑥 → 0, or the motion of the
spring stops. Thus, it will not
oscillate forever.
Example 1
• A spring with spring constant
𝑙𝑏𝑓
𝑘 = 16 is stretched to
𝑓𝑡
equilibrium by a 2-lbf weight. 𝑙𝑏𝑓
This weight is pulled down 4 𝑘 = 16
𝑓𝑡
inches below equilibrium point
by a downward initial velocity
of 8 ft/sec. Find the equation of
motion.

• Step 1: Visualize. 2 𝑙𝑏𝑓

4 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑡ൗ
8 𝑠
Example 1
• Step 2: Set up the differential
equation.
• Assuming undamped vibration,
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑘 𝑙𝑏𝑓
2
+ 𝑥=0 𝑘 = 16
𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑓𝑡
• To solve for the mass 𝑚,
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑓𝑡
2 𝑙𝑏𝑓 = 𝑚 32
𝑠
𝑚 = 0.0625 𝑙𝑏
• The equation is now
𝑑2 𝑥 16 2 𝑙𝑏𝑓
2
+ 𝑥=0
𝑑𝑡 2 0.0625
𝑑 𝑥 4 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑡ൗ
2
+ 256𝑥 = 0 8 𝑠
𝑑𝑡
Example 1
𝑑2 𝑥 • Step 4: Use initial conditions to
2
+ 256𝑥 = 0 solve for the constants.
𝑑𝑡
• Step 3: Solve for the general • At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑥0 = 4 𝑖𝑛, 𝑣0 = 8 𝑓𝑡Τ𝑠 .
solution to the differential
equation. 𝑥 = 𝑐1 cos 16𝑡 + 𝑐2 sin 16𝑡
• Write the auxiliary equation. 𝑥0 = 𝑐1 cos 16(0) + 𝑐2 sin 16(0)
𝐷2 + 256 𝑥 = 0 1 𝑓𝑡 1
𝑚2 + 256 = 0 𝑥0 = 4 𝑖𝑛 × = 𝑓𝑡
12 𝑖𝑛 3
𝑚 = −256
𝑚 = 0 ± 16𝑖 1
= 𝑐1
3
𝑥 = 𝑐1 cos 16𝑡 + 𝑐2 sin 16𝑡
Example 1
• At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑥0 = 4 𝑖𝑛, 𝑣0 = 8 𝑓𝑡Τ
𝑠. • Substituting the two constants,

𝑥 = 𝑐1 cos 16𝑡 + 𝑐2 sin 16𝑡 𝟏 𝟏

𝑑𝑥 𝒙 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟏𝟔𝒕 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟏𝟔𝒕
𝑣= 𝟑 𝟐
𝑑𝑡
= −16𝑐1 sin 16𝑡 + 16𝑐2 cos 16𝑡

𝑑𝑥
𝑣0 =
𝑑𝑡
= −16𝑐1 sin 16(0) + 16𝑐2 cos 16(0)

8 = 16𝑐2
1
𝑐2 =
2
Example 2
• A 2-lbf weight is attached to a
spring with spring constant
𝑙𝑏𝑓
6 . From the equilibrium
𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏𝑓
point, the spring is pulled with 𝑘=6
𝑓𝑡
𝑓𝑡
a downward velocity of 12 . If
𝑠
air resistance contributes to a
force that is 0.02 times the
velocity, find the equation of
motion.
2 𝑙𝑏𝑓
• Step 1: Visualize.
𝑓𝑡ൗ
12 𝑠
Example 2
• Step 2: Set up the differential
equation.
• Since it is stated in the problem
that air resistance is present, we 𝑙𝑏𝑓
𝑘=6
proceed with Case 2, where the 𝑓𝑡
vibration is damped.
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2𝑥 = 0
+ 2𝛼 + 𝛽
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝛾 𝑘
where 2𝛼 = , and 𝛽 = . 2
𝑚 𝑚
• From the problem, we know that
𝑅 = 0.02 𝑣 2 𝑙𝑏𝑓
or 𝛾 = 0.02.
𝑓𝑡ൗ
12 𝑠
Example 2
• To solve for the mass 𝑚, • Step 3: Solve for the general
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 solution to the differential
𝑓𝑡 equation.
2 𝑙𝑏𝑓 = 𝑚 32 • Write the auxiliary equation.
𝑠 2 + 0.32𝐷 + 96 𝑥 = 0
𝑚 = 0.0625 𝑙𝑏 𝐷
𝑚2 + 0.32𝑚 + 96 = 0
• The equation is now
2
𝑑 𝑥 0.02 𝑑𝑥 6 • Using the quadratic formula,
+ + 𝑥 = 0 𝑚 = −0.16 ± 9.797𝑖
𝑑𝑡 2 0.0625 𝑑𝑡 0.0625
• This gives us a general solution
2 of
𝑑 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
+ 0.32 + 96𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 −0.16𝑡 (𝑐1 cos 9.797𝑡
+ 𝑐2 sin 9.797𝑡)
Example 2
• Step 4: Use initial conditions to solve for the constants.
• At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑥0 = 0, 𝑣0 = 12 𝑓𝑡Τ𝑠 .
𝑥 = 𝑒 −0.16𝑡 (𝑐1 cos 9.797𝑡 + 𝑐2 sin 9.797𝑡)
0 = 1 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 0
𝑐1 = 0

𝑑𝑥
𝑣=
𝑑𝑡
−0.16𝑡
=𝑒 −9.797𝑐1 sin 9.797𝑡 + 9.797𝑐2 cos 9.797𝑡
− 0.16𝑒 −0.16𝑡 (𝑐1 cos 9.797𝑡 + 𝑐2 sin 9.797𝑡)
12 = 1 0 + 9.797𝑐2 − 0.16(1)(0 + 0)
𝑐2 = 1.225

𝒙 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟓𝒆−𝟎.𝟏𝟔𝒕 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟗. 𝟕𝟗𝟕𝒕

 Recap: Electrical Circuits
Symbols and notations:

• 𝑖 : current around the loop, amperes (A)

• 𝑅 : resistance, ohms (𝛺)
• 𝐸 or 𝑒𝑚𝑓 : electromotive force, volts (V)
• 𝑄 : charge, Coulombs (C)
• 𝐿 : inductance, Henry (H)
• 𝐸𝑅 : voltage drop across a resistor, volts (V)
• 𝐸𝐶 : voltage drop across a capacitor, volts (V)
• 𝐸𝐿 : voltage drop across an inductor, volts (V)
• 𝑡 : time, seconds (s)
 II. RLC Circuit
• Kirchhoff’s Second Law states
that “in any closed loop
network, the total voltage
around the loop is equal to the
sum of all the voltage drops
within the same loop.”
• So if a circuit has a resistor, an
inductor, and a capacitor in
series, the total voltage is given
by
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑅 + 𝐸𝐿 + 𝐸𝐶
 II. RLC Circuit
• The voltage across the resistor • The voltage across the
is given by capacitor is given by
𝐸𝑅 = 𝑖𝑅 𝑄
𝐸𝐶 =
where the current 𝑖 can 𝐶
also be expressed as
𝑑𝑄 • The equation for the total
𝑖=
𝑑𝑡 voltage may now be written as
• The voltage across the inductor 𝑑2 𝑄 𝑑𝑄 𝑄
is given by 𝐸 =𝐿 2 +𝑅 +
2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝑑𝑖 𝑑 𝑄 2
1
𝐸𝐿 = 𝐿 = 𝐿 2 𝐿𝐷 + 𝑅𝐷 + 𝑄=𝐸
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶
Example 3
• An inductance of 1 𝐻, a
resistance of 1600 Ω, and a
capacitance of 10−6 𝐹 are
connected in series with an
electromotive force of
100 sin 600𝑡 𝑉. If the charge
and current are both zero when
𝑡 = 0, find the current at any
time 𝑡 > 0.

• Step 1: Set up the differential

equation.
Example 3
2
1 𝜙 𝐷 = 𝐷2 + 1600𝐷 + 106
𝐿𝐷 + 𝑅𝐷 + 𝑄=𝐸 𝑚2 + 1600𝑚 + 106 = 0
𝐶
𝐿 =1𝐻 • Using the quadratic formula,
𝑅 = 1600 Ω 𝑚 = −800 ± 600𝑖
𝐶 = 10−6 𝐹
𝐸 = 100 sin 600𝑡 𝑉
• The complementary function is
therefore
𝐷2 + 1600𝐷 + 106 𝑄 𝑄𝑐
= 100 sin 600𝑡 = 𝑒 −800𝑡 (𝑐1 cos 600𝑡
+ 𝑐2 sin 600𝑡)
• Step 2: Solve for the
complementary function.
Example 3
• Step 3: Solve for the particular 𝑑2𝑄
integral. 𝑑𝑡 2
• Using Method 1, we write a = −360000𝐴 sin 600𝑡
“guess” for the particular integral − 360000𝐵 cos 600𝑡
with undetermined coefficients.
𝐷2 + 1600𝐷 + 106 𝑄 • Substituting to the original
= 100 sin 600𝑡 differential equation,

−360000𝐴 sin 600𝑡

𝑄𝑝 = 𝐴 sin 600𝑡 + 𝐵 cos 600𝑡 − 360000𝐵 cos 600𝑡
+ 1600ሾ600𝐴 cos 600𝑡
𝑑𝑄 − 600𝐵 sin 600𝑡ሿ
𝑑𝑡 + 106 𝐴 sin 600𝑡 + 𝐵 cos 600𝑡
= 600𝐴 cos 600𝑡 − 600𝐵 sin 600𝑡 = 100 sin 600𝑡
Example 3
−360000𝐴 sin 600𝑡
− 360000𝐵 cos 600𝑡
+ 1600ሾ600𝐴 cos 600𝑡
− 600𝐵 sin 600𝑡ሿ
+ 106 𝐴 sin 600𝑡 + 𝐵 cos 600𝑡
= 100 sin 600𝑡
• cos 600𝑡: −360000𝐵 +
960000𝐴 + 106 𝐵 = 0
960000𝐴 + 640000𝐵 = 0
3𝐴 + 2𝐵 = 0, 1 = 0.00004808 sin 600𝑡
• sin 600𝑡: −360000𝐴 −
960000𝐵 + 106 𝐴 = 100
640000𝐴 − 960000𝐵 = 100
6400𝐴 − 9600𝐵 = 1, 2
• Solving this system of equations,
𝐴 = 0.00004808
𝐵 = −0.00007212
𝑄𝑝
− 0.00007212 cos 600𝑡
Example 3
• Step 4: Add the complementary
function and the particular
integral.
𝑄 = 𝑄𝑐 + 𝑄𝑝
𝑄
= 𝑒 −800𝑡 (𝑐1 cos 600𝑡
+ 𝑐2 sin 600𝑡)
+ 0.00004808 sin 600𝑡
− 0.00007212 cos 600𝑡
• Step 5: Use the initial
conditions to solve for the
constants.
• At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑄 = 0, 𝑖 = 0.
0
= 𝑒 −800(0) (𝑐1 cos 600(0)
+ 𝑐2 sin 600(0))
+ 0.00004808 sin 600(0)
− 0.00007212 cos 600 0
0 = 𝑐1 − 0.00007212
𝑐1 = 0.00007212
𝑑𝑄
𝑖=
𝑑𝑡
−800𝑡
=𝑒 ሾ−600𝑐1 sin 600𝑡
+ 600𝑐2 cos 600𝑡ሿ
− 800𝑒 −800𝑡 𝑐1 cos 600𝑡 + 𝑐2 sin 600𝑡
+ 0.0288 cos 600𝑡 + 0.0433 sin 600𝑡
Example 3
0 = (1) 0 + 600𝑐2 − 800 𝑐1 + 0 + 0.0288

𝑐2 = 0.00004808

𝒅𝑸
𝒊=
𝒅𝒕
= 𝒆−𝟖𝟎𝟎𝒕 −𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟑𝟑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒕 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟖𝟖 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒕
− 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝒆−𝟖𝟎𝟎𝒕 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟐𝟏𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒕 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟖𝟎𝟖 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒕
+ 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟖𝟖 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒕 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟑𝟑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒕
 Exercise*
• An inductance of 0.02 𝐻, a resistance of 40 Ω, and a capacitance of
5× 10−5 𝐹 are connected in series with an electromotive force of
60 𝑉. If the charge 𝑄 and current 𝑖 are both zero when 𝑡 = 0, find
the current at any time 𝑡 > 0.

• Answer: 𝑖 = 3000𝑡𝑒 −1000𝑡 𝐴

*not for submission