Chapter 2

High Voltage Measurement

Dr. Mostafa Khalil

 Introduction
• Measurement of high voltages – DC, AC or Impulse
voltages – involves unusual problems.
• These problems increase with the magnitude of the
voltage.
• The difficulties are mainly related to the large
structures necessary to control the electrical fields, to
avoid flashover and sometimes to control the heat
dissipation within the circuits.
• This chapter is devoted to the measurement of voltages
applied for the testing of h.v. equipment or in research.

Dr. Mostafa Khalil Chapter 2 High Voltage Measurement 2

 High Voltage Measurement Methods

1. Ammeter in series with high ohmic resistors

and high ohmic resistor voltage dividers
2. Generating voltmeter
3. Electrostatic voltmeter
4. The Chubb–Fortescue method
5. Sphere gap measurements
6. Uniform field electrode gap

Dr. Mostafa Khalil Chapter 2 High Voltage Measurement 3

 1. Ammeter in series with high ohmic resistors
and high ohmic resistor voltage dividers

a) Micro ammeter in series

with resistor R.
𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑹 𝒊(𝒕)
Or
𝑽=𝑹𝑰
b) Voltage divider R1 , R2
and voltmeter.
𝑹𝟏
𝒗 𝒕 = 𝒗𝟐 (𝒕)(𝟏 + )
𝑹𝟐
𝑹𝟏
𝑽 = 𝑽𝟐 (𝟏 + )
𝑹𝟐

Dr. Mostafa Khalil Chapter 2 High Voltage Measurement 4

 Comments regarding the resistor technology
• In practice this high ohmic resistor is
composed of a large number of
individual elements connected in
series.
• Wire-wound metal resistors have
𝑪′𝒉
very low temperature coefficients.
• 𝑪′𝒉 : stray capacitances to the HV 𝑪′𝒑
𝑪′𝒄
electrode 𝑪′𝒑
• 𝑪′𝒆 : stray capacitances to the earth
potential 𝑪′𝒆

• 𝑪′𝒑 : parallel capacitances between

neighboring resistor elements

100-MΩ, 100-kV standard resistor

Dr. Mostafa Khalil Chapter 2 High Voltage Measurement 5
 Shielded resistor Equivalent network of an HV resistor

Dr. Mostafa Khalil Chapter 2 High Voltage Measurement 6

 Representation of high ohmic resistance

Dr. Mostafa Khalil Chapter 2 High Voltage Measurement 7

 𝑰𝒈 (𝝎) 𝟏
Prove that : =
𝑰𝒈 (𝝎=𝟎) 𝝎𝒄𝑹 𝟐
𝟏+
𝟔

𝑅
∆𝑉 = 𝐼 ∆𝑅 = 𝐼( ∆𝑋)
𝐿
∆𝑉 𝑅 𝒅𝑽 𝑹
=I or =𝐈 1
∆𝑋 𝐿 𝒅𝑿 𝑳

𝑐
∆𝐼 = 𝑉 + ∆𝑉 𝐽𝝎∆𝐶 = 𝑉𝐽𝝎 ∆𝑋
𝐿
∆𝐼 𝑐 𝒅𝑰 𝒄
= J𝜔V = 𝐉𝝎𝐕 2
∆𝑋 𝐿 𝒅𝑿 𝑳
Dr. Mostafa Khalil Chapter 2 High Voltage Measurement 8
 From Eq. 1 𝑑 2 𝑉 𝑅 𝑑𝐼
2
=
𝑑𝑋 𝐿 𝑑𝑋

From Eq. 2 𝑑2 𝑉 𝑅 𝑐
2
= (𝐽𝜔𝑉 )
𝑑𝑋 𝐿 𝐿

𝒅𝟐 𝑽 𝑱𝝎𝒄𝑹 𝒂𝟐
𝟐
= 𝟐
𝑽= 𝟐𝑽 Where 𝒂𝟐 = 𝑱𝝎𝒄𝑹
𝒅𝑿 𝑳 𝑳

The general solution of this equation is

𝒂 𝒂
𝑽= 𝑨𝒆𝑳𝒙 + 𝑩𝒆 − 𝑳𝒙

By using boundary conditions

At 𝑥 = 0 ; 𝑉 = 0 ∴ 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 0 𝐵 = −𝐴
At 𝑥 = 𝐿 ; 𝑉 = 𝑉0 ∴ 𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴 𝑒 𝑎 − 𝑒 −𝑎

Dr. Mostafa Khalil Chapter 2 High Voltage Measurement 9

 𝑉𝑜
𝐴= 𝑎
𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑎

𝑉𝑜 𝒂
𝒙
𝒂
− 𝒙
𝑉= 𝑎 −𝑎
𝒆𝑳 − 𝒆 𝑳
𝑒 −𝑒
𝐿 𝑑𝑉
From Eq. 1 𝐼=
𝑅 𝑑𝑋

𝐿 𝑉𝑜 𝑎 𝑎𝑥 𝑎 − 𝑎𝑥
𝐼= 𝑒𝐿 + 𝑒 𝐿
𝑅 𝑒 𝑎 − 𝑒 −𝑎 𝐿 𝐿

At 𝑥 = 0 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑔
where 𝐼𝑔 is the current at the earthed electrode

𝑉𝑜 2𝑎
𝐼𝑔 =
𝑅 𝑒 𝑎 − 𝑒 −𝑎

Dr. Mostafa Khalil Chapter 2 High Voltage Measurement 10

 Where
𝑎 2 𝑎 3
𝑒𝑎 = 1 + 𝑎 + + +⋯
2! 3!
𝑎2 𝑎3
𝑒− 𝑎 =1−𝑎+ − +⋯
2! 3!
𝑉𝑜 2𝑎 𝑉𝑜 1 𝑉𝑜 1
𝐼𝑔 = = =
𝑅 𝑎3 𝑅 𝑎2 𝑅 1 + 𝐽𝜔𝑐𝑅
2𝑎 + 2 1+ 6
3! 6

𝑉𝑜 1 𝑉𝑜
𝐼𝑔 (𝑤) = And 𝐼𝑔 (𝜔 = 0) =
𝑅 𝜔𝑐𝑅 2
𝑅
1+
6

𝑰𝒈 (𝝎) 𝟏
=
𝑰𝒈 (𝝎 = 𝟎) 𝝎𝒄𝑹 𝟐
𝟏+
𝟔

Dr. Mostafa Khalil Chapter 2 High Voltage Measurement 11

 2. Generating voltmeter
• Generating voltmeter called the rotary
voltmeter
• Generating voltmeter: A variable capacitor
electrostatic voltage generator.
• It generates current proportional to voltage
under measurement.

Dr. Mostafa Khalil Chapter 2 High Voltage Measurement 12

 Generating voltmeter

• It is driven by synch. motor, so doesn’t

observe power from the voltage measuring
source
• Used to measure high voltage DC
• No direct connection to the high voltage
source

Dr. Mostafa Khalil Chapter 2 High Voltage Measurement 13

 Fixed Moving Fixed Fixed

Schematic Diagram of a Generating Voltmeter

Dr. Mostafa Khalil Chapter 2 High Voltage Measurement 14

 Principle of operation
𝑄=𝐶𝑉

𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝐶 𝑑𝑉
𝑖= =𝑉 +𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝐶
For DC voltage =0 Hence, 𝑖= =𝑉
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝐶 = 𝐶𝑜 + 𝐶𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

The current 𝑖 is 𝑖 = 𝑉𝐶𝑚 𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡

𝑉𝐶𝑚 𝜔
𝐼𝑚 = 𝑉𝐶𝑚 𝜔 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2
Dr. Mostafa Khalil Chapter 2 High Voltage Measurement 15
 Advantages of Generating Voltmeters

• No source loading by the meter.

• No direct connection to high voltage
electrode.
• Scale is linear and extension of range is easy.
• A very convenient instrument for electrostatic
devices such as Van de Graff generator.

Dr. Mostafa Khalil Chapter 2 High Voltage Measurement 16

 Limitations of Generating Voltmeters

• They require calibration.

• Careful construction is needed and is
a cumbersome instrument requiring an
auxiliary drive.
• Disturbance in position and mounting of the
electrodes make the calibration invalid.

Dr. Mostafa Khalil Chapter 2 High Voltage Measurement 17

 3. Electrostatic voltmeter
Principle

𝑊𝑖 = 𝑊𝑜 + 𝑊𝑙 + 𝑊𝑓

Where
• 𝑊𝑖 is electrical energy input
• 𝑊𝑜 is mechanical energy output
• 𝑊𝑙 is energy losses
• 𝑊𝑓 is the change in the stored energy in the field

With no losses 𝑊𝑙 = 0
𝑊𝑖 = 𝑊𝑜 + 𝑊𝑓
Dr. Mostafa Khalil Chapter 2 High Voltage Measurement 18
 𝑑𝑊𝑖 = 𝑑𝑊𝑜 + 𝑑𝑊𝑓

𝑉 𝐼 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑊𝑓
𝑉 𝑑𝑄 = 𝐹 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑊𝑓

1 1
2
𝑊𝑓 = 𝐶 𝑉 = 𝑄 𝑉 ∴ 2𝑊𝑓 = 𝑄 𝑉 ∴ 2 𝑑𝑊𝑓 = 𝑉 𝑑𝑄
2 2

2 𝑑𝑊𝑓 = 𝐹 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑊𝑓

𝑑𝑊𝑓 𝑑 1 2
𝑑 1 𝜀𝐴 2
𝐹= = 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑉
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥

Dr. Mostafa Khalil Chapter 2 High Voltage Measurement 19

 𝟐
𝟏 𝑽
𝑭=− 𝜺𝑨
𝟐 𝒙
Where
• 𝑭 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒parallel plane electrodes
• 𝑽 = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠
• 𝑪 = 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠
• 𝑨 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
• 𝜺 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
• 𝒙 = gap length between the parallel plane electrodes

If the voltage is not constant, the force is also time

dependent
𝑇 𝑇
1 𝜀𝐴 2
𝜀𝐴 2
𝐹𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = න 𝐹 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑉 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = (𝑉 )
𝑇 2 𝑇 𝑥2 2 𝑥 2 𝑟𝑚𝑠
0 0
Dr. Mostafa Khalil Chapter 2 High Voltage Measurement 20
 Construction of Electrostatic
Voltmeter

M — Moving plate
B — Balance
G — Guard plate
C —Capacitance divider
F — Fixed plate
H —Guard rings
R — Balancing weight
D — Dome

Electrostatic voltmeter
Dr. Mostafa Khalil Chapter 2 High Voltage Measurement 21
 4. The Chubb–Fortescue method

𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑣
𝑖=𝐶 = 𝜔 𝐶 𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Dr. Mostafa Khalil Chapter 2 High Voltage Measurement 22
 𝜋
2
1
𝐼𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = න 𝑖 𝑑𝜔𝑡
2𝜋
𝜋
−
2
𝜋
2
2𝜋 𝑓 𝐶 𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = න cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡
2𝜋
𝜋
−2

𝐼𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 2 𝐶 𝑓 𝑉𝑚

𝐼𝑎𝑣
𝑉𝑚 =
2𝑓𝐶
Dr. Mostafa Khalil Chapter 2 High Voltage Measurement 23
 The different sources that contribute to the error are

1. The effective value of the capacitance being different

from the measured value of C.
2. Imperfect rectifiers which allow small reverse
currents.
3. Non-sinusoidal voltage waveforms with more than
one peak or maxima per half cycle.
4. Deviation of the frequency from that of the value
used for calibration.

Dr. Mostafa Khalil Chapter 2 High Voltage Measurement 24

 Current in case of multi peaks per half cycle

Dr. Mostafa Khalil Chapter 2 High Voltage Measurement 25