Welc om e to

CLASSES
 →

Faraday thought that if there’s a magnetic field due to electric current then the reverse
will also be true. He demonstrated through his experiments that electric current can be
generated through change in magnetic field.
He observed that, the relative motion between magnet and conductor coil causes the
current flow through the coil. He also observed that the direction of current also changes
depending on the direction of the motion between the magnet and the coil.
The number of magnetic field lines passing normally through a given surface.

𝐴
𝑛ො
𝐴
𝜙𝐵 depends on:
𝜙𝐵 ∝ 𝐵 𝜙𝐵 ∝ 𝐴
 𝑛ො
𝜙𝐵 ∝ 𝐵 𝜙𝐵 ∝ 𝐴
𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝜃
𝜙𝐵 = 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝐴Ԧ 𝐵

𝜙𝐵 = 𝐵. 𝐴Ԧ 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝐴

SI Unit : Weber (𝑊𝑏)

𝜙𝐵 = න 𝐵𝑑𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
Faraday’s experimental observations
Varying magnetic field strength

𝐵 = 𝐵(𝑡)

As we vary the magnetic field, the number of field lines passing through the coil (flux)
also changes. Hence, current will get induced if we vary the magnetic field.
Faraday’s experimental observations
Varying area of coil

𝐵
𝐴=𝐴 𝑡

If the area of coil is varied with time, the number of field lines passing through the coil
(flux) also change. Hence, current will get induced if we vary the area of the loop/coil.
Faraday’s experimental observations
Rotating coil

𝑌
𝜔 𝐵
𝜙𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝜃=𝜃 𝑡
𝑍
Flux through the coil
changes with time. 𝐴 𝑋
𝜃
𝐴

If we rotate the coil in magnetic field, the net area that is exposed to the magnetic field at
particular angle will also vary. This will cause change in flux through the coil.
 Faraday’s First Law
Whenever there is a change in magnetic flux linked with a conductor, an emf is induced
in conductor. If it is a closed circuit, induced current will flow through it.
Faraday’s Second Law
The magnitude of the induced emf in a conducting coil is proportional to the rate at
which the magnetic flux through that coil changes with time.

∆𝜙𝐵
𝜀∝
∆𝑡
 ∆𝜙𝐵
𝜀∝
∆𝑡 𝑁 number of coils

Average emf (𝜀𝐴𝑣𝑔 )

𝟎

∆𝜙𝐵 𝑮
𝜀𝐴𝑣𝑔 =𝑁
∆𝑡

Instantaneous emf (𝜀𝐼𝑛𝑠 )

𝑑𝜙𝐵
𝜀𝐼𝑛𝑠 =𝑁
𝑑𝑡
 Magnitude of Induced current:
∆𝜙𝐵
𝜀𝐴𝑣𝑔 𝑁 ∆𝑡
𝑖𝐴𝑣𝑔 = =
𝑟 𝑟
𝑑𝜙𝐵
𝜀𝐼𝑛𝑠 𝑁 𝑑𝑡
𝑖𝐼𝑛𝑠 = =
𝑟 𝑟
𝑟Ω

𝟎 ∆𝜙𝐵
𝜀𝐴𝑣𝑔 =𝑁
∆𝑡
𝑮

𝑑𝜙𝐵
𝜀𝐼𝑛𝑠 = 𝑁
𝑑𝑡
 Total charge flow ∆𝜙𝐵 𝑑𝜙𝐵
𝜀𝐴𝑣𝑔 = 𝑁 𝜀𝐼𝑛𝑠 =𝑁
∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑞
𝑖= ∆𝜙𝐵 𝑑𝜙𝐵
𝑑𝑡 𝜀𝐴𝑣𝑔 𝑁 𝜀𝐼𝑛𝑠 𝑁
∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑖𝐴𝑣𝑔 = = 𝑖𝐼𝑛𝑠 = =
𝑑𝜙𝐵 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑞
𝑖=𝑁 =
𝑟 𝑑𝑡

Δ𝜙𝐵
Δ𝑞 = 𝑁 𝑟Ω
𝑟
𝟎

𝑮
 A coil of resistance 400 Ω is placed in a magnetic field. If the magnetic flux 𝜙 (𝑊𝑏) linked
with the coil varies with time 𝑡 𝑠 as 𝜙 = 50𝑡 2 + 4, the current in the coil at 𝑡 = 2 𝑠 is…….

a 0.5 𝐴

b 0.1 𝐴

c 2𝐴

d 1𝐴
Given : 𝜙 = 50𝑡 2 + 4
𝑑𝜙𝐵
𝜀𝐼𝑛𝑠 =𝑁
𝑟 = 400 Ω 𝑑𝑡
𝑡 =2𝑠

𝑑𝜙𝐵 𝑑(50𝑡 2 + 4)
𝜀𝐼𝑛𝑠 = = = 100𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝜀𝐼𝑛𝑠 100𝑡
𝑖𝐼𝑛𝑠 = =
𝑟 𝑟

100 × 2
𝑖𝐼𝑛𝑠 = = 0.5 𝐴 Thus, option a is the correct answer.
400
 A conducting circular loop is placed in uniform magnetic field, 𝐵 = 0.025 𝑇 with its plane
perpendicular to the loop. The radius of the loop is made to shrink at a constant rate of
1 𝑚𝑚/𝑠. The induced emf when radius is 2 𝑐𝑚, is

a 2 𝜇𝑉
𝐵
𝑅
b 2𝜋 𝜇𝑉

2 𝑐𝑚
c 𝜋 𝜇𝑉

d 𝜋
𝜇𝑉
2
 𝐵
Given : 𝐵 = 0.025 𝑇 𝑅

𝑑𝑅
= 1 𝑚𝑚/𝑠
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑐𝑚

𝜙𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0° = 𝐵𝐴
𝜙𝐵 = 𝐵 × 𝜋𝑅2

𝑑𝜙𝐵 𝑑(𝐵 × 𝜋𝑅2 ) 𝑑𝑅

𝜀𝐼𝑛𝑠 = = = 𝐵 2𝜋𝑅
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑅
𝜀𝐼𝑛𝑠 = 𝐵 2𝜋𝑅 = 0.025 × 2𝜋 × 0.02 × 10−3 𝑉
𝑑𝑡

𝜀𝐼𝑛𝑠 = 𝜋 × 10−6 𝑉 = 𝜋 𝜇𝑉 Thus, option c is the correct answer.

 A coil of radius 𝑅 and resistance 𝑟 kept in a magnetic field 𝐵 = 𝐵0 𝑡 2 as shown in figure.
Find total charge that flows from 𝑡 = 0 to 𝑡 = 𝑡0 .

a 𝐵0 𝜋𝑅2 𝑡02
𝑟 𝐵 = 𝐵0 𝑡 2

b 𝐵0 𝜋𝑅2 𝑡0
𝑟

c 𝐵0 2𝑡0 𝜋𝑅2
𝑟

d 𝐵0 𝜋𝑅2 𝑡02
2𝑟
𝜙𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0° = 𝐵0 𝑡 2 𝜋𝑅2
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑅2 𝐵 = 𝐵0 𝑡 2
Δ𝜙𝐵
Δ𝑞 =
𝑟
𝜙𝐵 𝑡 − 𝜙 𝐵 0
0
Δ𝑞 =
𝑟
𝑟Ω
𝐵0 𝑡02 𝜋𝑅2 − 0
Δ𝑞 =
𝑟

𝐵0 𝜋𝑅2 𝑡02
Δ𝑞 =
𝑟
Thus, option a is the correct answer.
 In a coil of resistance 10 Ω, the induced current developed by changing magnetic flux
through it is shown in figure as a function of time. The magnitude of flux through the coil
in Weber is……

𝑖 (𝑎𝑚𝑝)
a 8
4
b 2

c 6

d 4 0 0.1 𝑡 (𝑠)
 𝑖 (𝑎𝑚𝑝)
Given : Resistance (𝑟 = 10 Ω)
Δ𝜙𝐵 4
Δ𝑞 =
𝑟
Δ𝑞 = Area under 𝑖 − 𝑡 graph

1
Area under 𝑖 − 𝑡 graph = × 4 × 0.1 = 0.2 𝐶
2 0 𝑡 (𝑠)
0.1
Δ𝜙𝐵 = 𝑟Δ𝑞

Δ𝜙𝐵 = 10 × 0.2 = 2 Weber

Thus, option b is the correct answer.

The polarity of induced emf is such that it tends to produce a current which opposes
the change in magnetic flux that produced it.
𝑑𝜙𝐵
𝜀 = −𝑁
𝑨𝑪𝑾
𝑑𝑡
𝑪𝑾
cause
effect

𝑑𝜙𝐵
𝜀 = −𝑁
𝑑𝑡

opposition
Relative motion of magnet and coil
Coil in changing magnetic field 𝑑𝜙𝐵
𝜀 = −𝑁
Cause : Increase of 𝐵 in inward direction 𝑑𝑡

𝑌
෠
𝐵 = 𝐵 𝑡 (−𝑘)
𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴𝑘෠

𝑋
Coil in changing magnetic field 𝑑𝜙𝐵
𝜀 = −𝑁
𝑑𝑡
Cause : Increase of 𝐵 in outward direction
𝑌 𝐵 = 𝐵(𝑡)𝑘෠
𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴 −𝑘෠

𝑋
 Current carrying wire and coil

𝑖
Current increases, 𝑖 = 𝑖(𝑡)
Flux inside the coil increases with time.

𝑂𝑁

𝑂𝐹𝐹

𝑖
Current carrying wire and coil

Current constant Flux inside the coil decreases when coil

move away from current.

𝑖
Current carrying wire and coil

Current constant
Flux inside the coil is constant when it
move parallel to current carrying wire.

𝑖
Coil moving in a magnetic field. At 𝜙 𝑖
𝐴 0 0
𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐵 increase 𝐴𝐶𝑊
𝐵 𝑡𝑜 𝐶 constant 0
𝐶 𝑡𝑜 𝐷 decrease 𝐶𝑊

𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷
EMF generated in the coil will always try to resist the
change in magnetic flux. The mechanical energy spent
on the relative motion between the magnet and coil
gets converted into the electrical energy.

Thus, Lenz’s law is in accordance with conservation of energy

 A wire is bent to form the double loop 𝐴𝐵𝐷𝐶𝐴. There is a time dependent magnetic field
directed into the plane of the loop. If the magnitude of this field is decreasing, current will
flow from

a 𝐴 to 𝐵 and 𝐶 to 𝐷

b B to A and D to C 𝐴 𝐵
𝐶 𝐷
c A to B and D to C

d B to A and C to D
 Decreasing B
In this case, as the magnetic field going inside the 𝐴 𝐵
plane is decreasing, the emf will generate in such 𝐶 𝐷
a way that the will generate magnetic field going
inside the loop to counter the decreasing
magnetic field.
As the magnetic field is going inside the plane
using right hand rule we can find that the current
will flow from A to B and then D to C. The
generated emf/current will always try to resist the
change in magnetic flux.
A to B and D to C
Thus, option c is the correct answer.
 Find the average induced current and it’s direction in the coil shown in figure, if it rotates
60° in 0.2 𝑠𝑒𝑐. Radius and resistance of coil are 𝑅 and 𝑟 respectively.

𝑌
5𝐵𝜋𝑅2 𝜔
a and 𝐴𝐶𝑊
2𝑟 𝐵
𝑍
2𝐵𝜋𝑅2
b and 𝐶𝑊
5𝑟
𝑋

5𝐵𝜋𝑅2
c and 𝐴𝐶𝑊
4𝑟

5𝐵𝜋𝑅2
d and 𝐶𝑊
2𝑟
𝜙𝐵 = 𝐵. 𝐴Ԧ

𝜙𝐵 𝑖 = 𝐵𝐴 cos 0° = 𝐵𝜋𝑅2

𝐵𝜋𝑅2
𝜙𝐵 𝑓 = 𝐵𝐴 cos 60° =
2
𝐵𝜋𝑅2
Δ𝜙 𝜙𝐵 𝑓 − 𝜙𝐵 𝑖 − 𝐵𝜋𝑅2 𝐵𝜋𝑅 2
5𝐵𝜋𝑅 2
𝜀 = = |𝜀| = 2 = =
Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡 0.2 2 × 0.2 2

𝜀 5𝐵𝜋𝑅2
𝑖= 𝑖= 𝐴𝐶𝑊 Thus, option a is the correct answer.
𝑟 2𝑟
 A wire loop is rotated in a magnetic field. The frequency of change of direction of the
induced emf is

𝑌
a once per revolution 𝜔
𝐵
𝑍
b twice per revolution
𝑋
𝜃
c four times per revolution

d six times per revolution

Let in a time ′𝑡′ the coil rotates by an angle 𝜃. 𝑌

𝜔
𝜙𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜃
𝐵
𝑍
𝜙𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝜃 = ω𝑡
𝑋
𝜃
𝑑 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜙𝐵
𝜀=− 𝜀 = −𝑁
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝜀 = −𝐵𝐴 = −𝐵𝐴(−𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

𝜀 = 𝐵𝐴𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡
 𝑌
𝜀 = 𝐵𝐴𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜔
𝜀 𝐵
𝑍

𝐵𝐴𝜔
𝑋
+𝑣𝑒 +𝑣𝑒 𝜃
𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 4𝜋 𝜔𝑡
−𝑣𝑒 −𝑣𝑒

−𝐵𝐴𝜔

As we can see from the graph, in 1 revolution i.e., 360° rotation

direction of emf changes twice.
Thus, option b is the correct answer.
The magnetic field 𝐵 is directed into the plane of the paper. ACDA is a semicircular
conducting loop of radius 𝑅 with the centre at 𝑂. The loop is now made to rotate clockwise
with a constant angular velocity 𝜔 about an axis passing through 𝑂 and perpendicular to
the plane of the paper. The resistance of the loop is 𝑟. Obtain an expression for the
magnitude of the induced current in the loop. Plot a graph between the induced current 𝑖
and 𝜔𝑡, for two periods of rotation.

𝐴 𝐵

𝐶 𝜔 𝑂

𝐷
Given : Radius (𝑅), Resistance (𝑟) 𝐵
𝐶
𝜃 1 2
Area, 𝐴 = 2
× 𝜋𝑅 = 𝑅 𝜃 𝐴
2𝜋 2 𝜃
𝜔
𝜙𝐵 through coil at time ′𝑡 ′ 𝑂

𝜙𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 cos 0° 𝑜𝑟 𝐵𝐴 cos 180° 𝐷

𝐵𝑅2 𝜃
𝜙𝐵 = ±
2

𝐵𝑅2 𝜃
𝑑 𝑑𝜙𝐵
2 |𝜀| = 𝑁
|𝜀| = 1 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
 𝑅𝜃 𝐵
Given : Radius (𝑅), Resistance (𝑟) 𝐶

𝜃 𝐴
𝐵𝑅2 𝜃 𝜔
𝑑
2
|𝜀| = 1 𝑂
𝑑𝑡
𝐷
𝐵𝑅2 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜀= =𝜔
2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐵𝑅2
𝜀= 𝜔
2
𝜀
𝑖=
𝑟
𝐵𝜔𝑅2
𝑖=
2𝑟
 ➢ As the coil rotates and goes into the magnetic
field, the area that defines flux increases till it
completes half revolution. The area starts
decreasing when the coil completes next half
of the revolution and come out of field.
➢ Current will be ACW in first half and it will be
CW in next half of revolution as per Lenz’s law
𝐵𝜔𝑅2
𝑖= and this cycle will continue as the coil rotates
2𝑟 further.
When a conductor starts moving in a magnetic field, emf gets induced in it. It will start
acting as a cell/battery. A potential difference gets developed between the ends of this
conductor. This EMF developed due to motion of conductor in magnetic field is called as
motional EMF.

𝑙
 𝑦 𝐹𝑚

𝑣
𝑄
𝑙 𝐹𝑚
𝑥
𝑣
𝐵
𝑃 ➢ Conductors have electrons in them. These electrons
𝑧 start moving when the conductor undergo motion
in magnetic field.
➢ As the electrons are negatively charged particle, the
𝐵 direction of force will be in opposite direction of the
magnetic force we took in case of positive particles.

For 𝑒 − Magnetic Force (𝐹Ԧ𝑚 ) is in opposite direction.

 𝐹Ԧ𝐸 = 𝑒𝐸
𝑄
𝐹𝐸

𝑙 𝑣 𝐵 𝑒− 𝑣
𝐸
𝐹𝑚 𝐹𝑚
𝑃

𝐹Ԧ𝑚 = −𝑒 𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵 ⇒ 𝐹Ԧ𝑚 = 𝑒𝑣𝐵

Electrons will start accumulating at the end P. Because of the accumulation,
electric field develops in the QP direction. At steady state the magnetic force on
the electrons become equal to the electric force.
 𝑄
𝐹Ԧ𝐸 = 𝑒𝐸 Initially 𝐹Ԧ𝑚 > 𝐹Ԧ𝐸 ∆𝑉 = 𝐸𝑙

𝐹𝐸 ∆𝑉 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙
When, 𝐹Ԧ𝐸 = 𝐹Ԧ𝑚 𝑙 𝑣
𝑒− 𝑒𝐸 = 𝑒𝑣𝐵 𝜀 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙
𝐸
𝐹𝑚 𝑃
𝐸 = 𝑣𝐵
Potential difference across the
two ends of the conductor of
length 𝑙 moving in a magnetic
𝐹Ԧ𝑚 = 𝑒𝑣𝐵
field of intensity 𝐵 with velocity
𝑣 is, 𝜀 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙.
 𝑄 𝑄 𝜀 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙

𝑣𝐵𝑙 This rod can also be considered as

𝑙 𝑣 ≡ a battery as EMF is developed in
𝑟 it. We can consider it as a battery
with internal resistance equal to
the resistance of the rod.
𝑃 𝑃

Rod 𝑃𝑄 ≡ Battery (𝜀 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙 , 𝑟 = resistance of rod )

If we connect this rod to an external circuit with resistance R ,the
current through the circuit because of the motional emf can be
calculated as follow: 𝜀 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙
𝑄 𝑖 𝑄 𝑖

𝑅 𝑣𝐵𝑙 𝑅
𝑙 𝑣 ≡
𝑟

𝑃 𝑃

𝑣𝐵𝑙
𝑖= Induced current
𝑅+𝑟
𝑥 𝜙 = 𝐵. 𝐴 = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜃
𝜙 = 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐵𝑙𝑥
𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝑥
𝜀= = 𝐵𝑙
𝑙 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝜀 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙
Direction - By Lenz’s law
𝑥 𝜀 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙
𝑄

𝑙 𝑣

• 𝜙 increasing (𝜙 ∝ 𝐴)

• Direction of induced current- anti-clockwise

Direction - By Lenz’s law
𝑄 𝜀 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙

𝑣
𝑙

• 𝜙 decreasing (𝜙 ∝ 𝐴)

• Direction of induced current- clockwise

Find the current in 5 Ω resistance

𝑄
a 0.5 𝐴
𝐵 = 0.1 𝑇
b 0.4 𝐴 5Ω
2𝑚 10 𝑚/𝑠

c 1𝐴
𝑃
d 0.2 𝐴
 𝑄

𝐵 = 0.1 𝑇
𝜀 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙
5Ω
2𝑚 10 𝑚/𝑠
𝜀 = 10 × 0.1 × 2
𝜀 =2𝑉
𝜀 𝑃
𝑖=
𝑅
2
𝑖= = 0.4 𝐴
5

Thus, option b is the correct answer.

 𝑣 𝑄 𝑑𝑉 = −𝐸 . 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ

𝛼 න 𝑑𝑉 = න(𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵) . 𝑑𝑙Ԧ
𝜃
𝐵 ∆𝑉 = 𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵 . 𝑙Ԧ
𝑙Ԧ

𝜀 = 𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵 . 𝑙Ԧ
𝑃

𝐹Ԧ𝐸 = −𝐹Ԧ𝑚 Electrons will start accumulating at the end P because of

the accumulation electric field develops in the QP
𝑒𝐸 = −𝑒(𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵)
direction. At steady state, the magnetic force on the
electrons become equal to the electric force.
𝐸 = −(𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵)
 𝑄
𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵
𝑄
𝑙 90° − 𝜃
𝑙 𝑣 𝑃 𝑄 𝜃
𝑣 𝑣

𝑃
𝑃
𝜀 = 𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵 . 𝑙Ԧ 𝜀 = 𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵 . 𝑙Ԧ 𝜀 = 𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵 . 𝑙Ԧ
𝜀 = 𝑣𝐵 sin 90° . 𝑙Ԧ 𝜀 = 𝑣𝐵 sin 90° . 𝑙Ԧ
𝜀 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙 sin 𝜃
𝜀 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙 cos 0° 𝜀 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙 cos 90°
𝜀 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙 𝜀=0

𝐵 ⊥ 𝑣Ԧ ⊥ 𝑙Ԧ 𝑣Ԧ ∥ 𝑙Ԧ
 𝑄 𝑄𝑣 𝑣

𝑙 𝑣 𝐵 𝑙 𝐵 𝐵
𝑄 𝑃
𝑙
𝑃 𝑃

𝜀 = 𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵 . 𝑙Ԧ 𝜀 = 𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵 . 𝑙Ԧ 𝜀 = 𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵 . 𝑙Ԧ

𝜀 = 𝑣𝐵 sin 0° . 𝑙Ԧ 𝜀 = 𝑣𝐵 sin 90° . 𝑙Ԧ 𝜀 = 𝑣𝐵 sin 90° . 𝑙Ԧ

𝜀⇒0 𝜀 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙 cos 90° 𝜀 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙 cos 90°

𝜀=0 𝜀=0
𝑣Ԧ ∥ 𝐵
𝑣Ԧ ∥ 𝑙Ԧ 𝑙Ԧ ∥ 𝐵
If 𝐵, 𝑣Ԧ & 𝑙Ԧ are mutually perpendicular. 𝜀 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙

If any two of 𝐵, 𝑣Ԧ & 𝑙Ԧ are parallel. 𝜀=0

If 𝐵, 𝑣Ԧ & 𝑙Ԧ are at some angle. 𝜀 = 𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵 . 𝑙Ԧ

• A rod of length 𝑙 having resistance 𝑟 is sliding on frictionless rails which have 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
resistance
Find induced emf and current in rod.
𝑟Ω

Induced emf, 𝜀 = 𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵 ⋅ 𝑙
𝐵, 𝑣Ԧ and 𝑙Ԧ are mutually ⊥
= 𝑣𝐵𝑙

𝜀
Current in rod, 𝑖 =
𝑅+𝑟
𝜀 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙
𝑣𝐵𝑙
=
𝑅+𝑟
• A rod of length 𝑙 having resistance 𝑟 is sliding on frictionless rails which have 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
resistance
Find external force required to keep the rod moving with
constant velocity 𝑣.
𝐹Ԧ𝑚 = 𝑖(𝑙Ԧ × 𝐵) 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡

𝐹𝑚 = 𝑖𝑙𝐵 sin 90∘

= 𝑖𝑙𝐵
𝑣𝐵𝑙
𝑖=
𝐵2 𝑙 2 𝑣 𝑅+𝑟
=
𝑅+𝑟

2 2
𝐵 𝑙 𝑣
𝐹𝑚 = 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡
𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 =
𝑅+𝑟
• A rod of length 𝑙 having resistance 𝑟 is sliding on frictionless rails which have 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
resistance
𝑄
Find input power
𝐵
Work done by external force
RΩ 𝑣
𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑃
𝐵2 𝑙2 𝑣
𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = = Constant 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑊 𝑑𝑥 𝑅+𝑟
𝑃𝑖 = = 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Input Power
𝑑𝑥
=𝑣
𝑑𝑡
𝐵2 𝑙2 𝑣 2
𝑃𝑖 =
𝑅+𝑟
• A rod of length 𝑙 having resistance 𝑟 is sliding on frictionless rails which have 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
resistance
Find output power 𝐵2 𝑙2 𝑣 2
2
𝑃𝑖 =
𝑃𝑂 = 𝑖 (𝑅 + 𝑟) 𝑅+𝑟 rΩ

2
𝑣𝐵𝑙
= (𝑅 + 𝑟)
𝑅+𝑟

𝐵2 𝑙2 𝑣 2
=
𝑅+𝑟

Power Input = Power Output

Mechanical Electrical
Work Energy
• A rod of length 𝑙 having resistance 𝑟 is sliding on frictionless rails which have 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
resistance without any external force.

Find induced emf and current when velocity of rod is ′𝑣′

𝑥
𝜀 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙 𝑡=0 𝑡=𝑡

𝜀 𝑣𝐵𝑙
𝑖= =
𝑅+𝑟 𝑅+𝑟
𝑅 𝑣
𝑣𝐵𝑙
𝑖=
𝑅+𝑟
𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑟
Find acceleration of the rod at this instant

𝐹𝑚 = 𝑖𝐵𝑙 𝑥
𝑡=0 𝑡=𝑡
𝑣𝐵𝑙
𝐹𝑚 = × 𝐵𝑙
𝑅+𝑟
𝐵2 𝑙2 𝑣 𝐹𝑚
𝐹𝑚 = 𝑙 𝑣 𝑅
𝑅+𝑟 𝑖
𝐵2 𝑙2 𝑣
𝐹𝑚 𝑅+𝑟
𝑎= = 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑟
𝑚 𝑚

𝐵2 𝑙 2 𝑣
𝑎=−
𝑚(𝑅 + 𝑟) −𝑣𝑒 sign implies retardation
Write ′𝑣′ as a function of ′𝑡′
𝑥
𝐵2 𝑙 2 𝑣 𝑡=0 𝑡=𝑡
𝑎=−
𝑚 𝑅+𝑟
𝑑𝑣 𝐵2 𝑙2 𝑣
=− 𝑅
𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑅+𝑟
𝑣 𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝐵2 𝑙2
න = න− 𝑑𝑡
𝑣 𝑚 𝑅+𝑟 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑟
𝑣𝑜 0

𝑣
𝐵2 𝑙2 𝑡 𝑣 𝐵2 𝑙2 𝑡
log 𝑒 𝑣 𝑣𝑜
=− ⇒ log 𝑒 =−
𝑚 𝑅+𝑟 𝑣𝑜 𝑚 𝑅+𝑟

𝐵2 𝑙 2 𝑡
−
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜 𝑒 𝑚 𝑅+𝑟
Write ′𝑣 ′ as a function of displacement ′𝑥′
2 2
𝑥
𝐵 𝑙 𝑣 𝑡=0 𝑡=𝑡
𝑎=−
𝑚 𝑅+𝑟
𝑣𝑑𝑣 𝐵2 𝑙2 𝑣
=−
𝑑𝑥 𝑚 𝑅+𝑟 𝑅
𝑣 𝑥
𝐵2 𝑙2
න 𝑑𝑣 = න − 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 𝑅+𝑟
𝑣𝑜 0 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑟

𝐵2 𝑙2
𝑣 − 𝑣𝑜 = − 𝑥
𝑚 𝑅+𝑟

𝐵2 𝑙2
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜 − 𝑥
𝑚 𝑅+𝑟
Find the distance covered by the rod before it stops.
𝑥
𝐵2 𝑙 2
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜 − 𝑥 𝑣 = 0 when rod stops 𝑡=0 𝑡=𝑡
𝑚 𝑅+𝑟
𝐵2 𝑙2
0 = 𝑣𝑜 − 𝑥
𝑚 𝑅+𝑟
𝑅

𝑣𝑜 𝑚 𝑅 + 𝑟
𝑥=
𝐵2 𝑙2 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑟
Eddy currents are loops of electric current induced within conductors by a changing
magnetic field in the conductor according to Faraday's law of induction.

Eddy currents are induced currents in the body of conductor when subjected to
changing magnetic flux.
They are also known as Foucault current after the name of the scientist Foucault.

They are known as eddy currents as they are in the pattern of eddies in the water.

Eddy currents are capable of generating heat in the conductor.

Eddy currents ae capable of generating a force on the conductor in accordance with

Faraday’s laws and Lenz's law.
Consider a conductor tied to a string and moving in a varying magnetic field. Every time
it passes the field, the direction of currents generated in it changes. The varying
magnetic field causes the localized currents in the conductor.
Localized currents induced in a conductor due to changing magnetic flux.

Eddy currents are only produced in electrical conducting materials and that too in
presence of changing magnetic flux.
By introducing slots in the plate one can
reduce the area available for the
generation of eddy currents.

This reduces the intensity of damping.

By introducing slots in the plate, we are

increasing the length through which current is
traversing and reducing the area available for
the currents. As resistance is directly
proportional to the length and inversely
proportional to the area, this will result in
increase in resistance of the conductor. Which
will cause lower current and lower heat loss
due to eddy currents.
 :

Dissipate electrical energy in the form of heat. Overheating of metallic cores of

transformers, electric motors and other such devices.
 :

In order to avoid the overheating of the core, metallic sheets are taken in the
form of very thin sheets. These sheets are electrically insulated.

The cores are insulated with some insulating material. As a result, heat won’t
get transferred to surroundings. These cores are known as laminated cores.

By using these cores, eddy currents are reduced, as a result heat dissipation is
reduced.
 ∶

Electromagnetic brakes – To control the speed of fast-moving electric trains.

In this case, magnetic flux is passed in

direction perpendicular to the rotating
direction of wheels. This results in eddy
currents flowing in opposite direction of
rotation of the wheel which generates
opposing force to slow down the wheels.
This type of breaking is very efficient as it
reduces the damages due to traditional
friction based braking system.

Electromagnetic damping – Electromagnetic damping in galvanometers helps

to reduce oscillations around equilibrium positions.
In which of the following devices, the eddy current effect is not used?

a Electromagnet Electric heater – It uses Joule’s heating effect to

b Electric heater
c Induction furnace
convert the electrical energy to heat energy. It
does not use eddy currents to produce heat.
Whereas, electromagnets, induction furnace and
magnetic breaking in train involves eddy
currents.

d Magnetic braking in train

 Eddy currents are produced when

a A metal is kept in varying magnetic field

A metal kept in varying magnetic
field – Eddy currents are produced
b A metal is kept in steady magnetic field
only when there’s change in
magnetic flux through a
c A circular coil is placed in a magnetic field conductor. This is possible only in
case of option a.

d Through a circular coil, current is passed

 Consider a uniform conducting rod
rotating with constant angular speed 𝜔 in
uniform magnetic field going into the 𝑣 = 𝑥𝜔
𝐵𝜔𝑙 2 plane of motion of the rod.
𝜀=
𝑣 2 Consider an element of thickness 𝑑𝑥 at a distance 𝑥 from
+𝜔 𝐹 − 𝑂. Thus, EMF induced in the small element 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝜀
𝑂 𝑋 𝑑𝜀 = 𝐵𝑣𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑙
𝑙
∫ 𝑑𝜀 = ∫ 𝐵𝑣𝑑𝑥 = න 𝐵𝜔𝑥𝑑𝑥
0
𝐵𝜔𝑙2
𝜀=
2

As 𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵 is pointing towards ′𝑂′, Thus ′𝑂′ is + 𝑣𝑒 and ′𝑋′ is − 𝑣𝑒.

We neglect the force due to rotation (Centripetal).
 𝑣 = 𝑥𝜔

𝑣 𝑣

𝜔 𝜔
𝑂 𝑋 𝑂 𝑋
𝑥 𝑥
𝑙 𝑙

𝐵𝜔𝑙 2
𝐵𝜔𝑙 2 𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉𝑋 =
𝜀= 2
2
EMF increases as we move from centre to the far end.
A metal rod of length 𝑙 rotates about an end with a uniform angular velocity 𝜔. A
uniform magnetic field 𝐵 exists in the direction of the axis of rotation. Calculate the
emf induced between point 𝑋 & 𝑌 ( 𝑉 𝑌 − 𝑉 𝑋 ). Neglect the centripetal force
acting on the free electrons as they move in circular paths.

𝜔 𝑙/2
𝑌 𝑋
𝑂
𝑙
 𝐵𝜔𝑙 2
𝑉𝑂 − 𝑉𝑋 =
2
2
𝑙 𝐵𝜔𝑙 2
𝐵𝜔 2 𝜀=
𝑉𝑂 − 𝑉𝑌 = 2
𝜔 2
𝑙/2
𝑌 𝑋
𝑂 𝐵𝜔𝑙 2
𝑙
𝑉𝑂 − 𝑉𝑌 =
8

(𝑉𝑂 −𝑉𝑋 ) − (𝑉𝑂 − 𝑉𝑌 ) = 𝑉𝑌 − 𝑉𝑋

𝐵𝜔𝑙 2 𝐵𝜔𝑙 2
𝑉𝑌 − 𝑉𝑋 = −
2 8
3𝐵𝜔𝑙 2
𝑉𝑌 − 𝑉𝑋 =
8
ALTERNATIVE METHOD:-
𝑙
∫ 𝑑𝜀 = 𝜀 = න 𝐵𝜔𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑙
2
𝑙
𝐵𝜔𝑥 2 𝐵𝜔𝑙 2 𝐵𝜔(𝑙/2)2
𝑉𝑌 − 𝑉𝑋 = = −
𝜔 𝑙/2 2 𝑙 2 2
𝑌 𝑋 2
𝑂
𝑙
𝐵𝜔𝑙 2 𝐵𝜔𝑙 2
𝑉𝑌 − 𝑉𝑋 = −
2 8

3𝐵𝜔𝑙 2
𝑉𝑌 − 𝑉𝑋 =
8
Find 𝑉𝑌 − 𝑉𝑋 ?

𝑂
𝑋 𝑌
𝑙 𝜔 𝑙
 Combining two parts, we
Lets break the given rod in two parts as shown below. get:

𝑂 𝑌 𝑂
𝑋 𝑋 𝑌
𝜔 𝑙 𝜔
𝑙

KVL from 𝑌 to 𝑋
𝐵𝜔𝑙 2 𝐵𝜔𝑙 2
𝑉𝑌 − 𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉𝑋 − 𝑉𝑂 = 𝐵𝜔𝑙 2 𝐵𝜔𝑙 2
2 2 𝑉𝑌 − + = 𝑉𝑋
2 2
𝑉𝑌 − 𝑉𝑋 = 0
 𝐶 𝐶
𝑅 𝑅
𝑃 𝑀 𝑃 𝑀
Combination of 𝑛 number of rods
𝑙
𝑋 𝑌 𝑋 𝑌
𝑂
𝜔 A conducting disc is formed 𝜔
𝑁 𝑄 𝑁 𝑄

𝑆 𝑆
𝐷 𝐷

𝐵𝜔𝑙 2
𝑉𝑋 = 𝑉𝑌 = 𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉𝑂 = 0
2
𝐵𝜔𝑙 2
𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉𝐷 = ⇒ 𝑉𝑋 = 𝑉𝑌 = 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉𝐷 = 𝑉𝑃 = 𝑉𝑄
2
❖ Each point on the circumference of the disc is equipotential points. Hence, the potential difference
between two points on the circumference is zero.
 𝐵𝜔𝑟 2 𝐵𝜔𝑟 2 𝐶 𝑅
𝑉𝑅 − 𝑉𝑁 = − =0
2 2 𝑃 𝑀
𝑟
𝐵𝜔𝑟 2 𝐵𝜔𝑟 2
𝑉𝑋 − 𝑉𝑃 = − =0 𝑋 𝑌
2 2 𝑂
𝜔
𝐵𝜔𝑟 2 𝑁 𝑄
𝑉𝑅 − 𝑉𝑂 =
2
𝑆
𝐷
 𝐵𝜔𝑙 2
𝜀= 𝑙 – Distance between the ends of wire
2

𝜔 𝐴 𝐵𝜔𝑙 2
𝑉𝑂 − 𝑉𝐴 =
𝑙 2
𝑂
The right hand thumb rule suggests that the positive terminal of
the battery having EMF equivalent to the EMF induced in the
wire will be towards point 𝑂. Therefore, 𝑉𝑂 > 𝑉𝐴 .
Find 𝑉𝑋 − 𝑉𝑌 ?

𝜔
4𝑚
𝑋
𝑂 3𝑚

𝑌
 For the motion of the rod 𝑂𝑋, the right hand thumb
rule suggests that the positive terminal of the battery
𝜔 having EMF equivalent to the EMF induced in the rod 𝐵𝜔𝑙 2
4𝑚 𝑋 will be towards point 𝑂. Therefore, 𝑉𝑂 > 𝑉𝑋 . 𝜀=
2
𝑂 1 2
3𝑚 𝑉𝑂 − 𝑉𝑋 = 𝐵𝜔 4 = 8 𝐵𝜔
2
5𝑚
Similarly,
𝑌
𝐵𝜔(5)2 25𝐵𝜔
𝑉𝑂 − 𝑉𝑌 = =
2 2

Therefore,
25 9
𝑉𝑋 − 𝑉𝑌 = (𝑉𝑂 −𝑉𝑌 ) − (𝑉𝑂 − 𝑉𝑋 ) = 𝐵𝜔 − 8 𝐵𝜔 = 𝐵𝜔
2 2

9
𝑉𝑋 − 𝑉𝑌 = 𝐵𝜔
2
Find current passing through the rod (circular ring is conducting).

𝑅
𝐶

𝑂 𝐴
𝜔 𝑎

𝑟 → Resistance of rotating rod

 𝑅
𝑅
𝐶
𝑖

𝑂 𝐴
𝜔 𝑎 Equivalent resistance of the circuit:
𝑟
𝑅𝑒 = 𝑅 + 𝑟
Current passing through the rod: 𝐵𝜔𝑎2
𝜀 𝐵𝜔𝑎2 𝜀=
2
𝑖= =
𝑟 → Resistance of rotating rod 𝑅𝑒 2(𝑅 + 𝑟)

𝐵𝜔𝑎2
𝑖=
2(𝑅 + 𝑟)
If a force "𝐹" is applied on the mid-point of the rod so that the rod rotates with
constant 𝜔, find 𝐹 ?

𝑅
𝐶
𝐹

𝑂 𝐴
𝜔 𝑎
Solution

Given, 𝜔 = Constant ⇒ 𝛼 = 0 ⇒ 𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0 𝐹

𝑖
As the net torque is zero, torque due to
magnetic force and external fore is equal.
𝑎 𝑎
𝐹𝑚 . = 𝐹. 𝐹𝑚
2 2

𝐹 = 𝐹𝑚 = 𝑖𝐵𝑎 𝐹𝑚 = 𝑖𝐵𝑙 sin 90° ⇒ 𝑖𝐵𝑎

𝐵𝜔𝑎2
𝜖
Current, 𝑖 = = 2
𝑅𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑅+𝑟
𝐵𝜔𝑎2 𝐵2 𝜔𝑎3
𝐵𝜔𝑎2 𝑖= 𝐹=
𝐹= 𝐵𝑎 2(𝑅 + 𝑟) 2(𝑅 + 𝑟)
2(𝑅 + 𝑟)
 Classification of electrical components

Active electrical component Passive electrical component

1) A passive element is an electrical

1) Active elements generate energy for
component that does not generate
any device. It is the core component
power but instead dissipates, stores
to operate the device.
and/or releases it.

Example:
2) Active components control the charge
flow in electrical or electronic circuits. Resistor

Capacitor
Example:

Inductor
Battery
Consider current 𝑖 is flowing through a conductor coil,
Case 1 : When 𝑖 is increasing

𝑖induced current

Induced current always opposes the growth in current.

Consider current 𝑖 is flowing through a conductor coil,
Case 2 : When 𝑖 is decreasing

𝑖induced current

Induced current always supports the decaying current.

1) Self-inductance is the property of the 3) The self-induced emf in the coil
current-carrying coil that resists or will resist the rise of current when the
opposes the change in current flowing current increases and vice versa.
through it.

2) This occurs mainly due to the self- 4) This property is applicable for a time –
induced emf produced in the coil. varying current and not for the direct or
steady current.
The induced emf across a coil is directly proportional to the rate of change of current
through it.
𝑑𝑖
𝑉∝
𝑑𝑡
 𝑖
𝜙

𝜙
𝜙 = Magnetic flux linked with one coil Magnetic Flux 𝜙 = 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 𝐴−1
𝜙 𝑇 = Total flux = 𝑁𝜙 Current 𝑖 = 𝐴
𝜙∝𝑖 𝑁𝜙
𝐿= 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 𝐴−1
𝜙 𝑇 = 𝐿𝑖 𝑖 𝐿=
𝐴
𝑁𝜙 = 𝐿𝑖 Coefficient of self-inductance
Weber 𝐿 = 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 𝐴−2
Unit = Or Henry 𝐻
Ampere
 𝜀
𝐿=
𝑑𝑖
𝑑𝑡
𝑖 𝑖

𝐸
+ −
𝑏
Induced EMF:
𝑑𝜙 𝑇
𝜀=− 𝑑𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑖 If the rate of change current is
𝑑𝑡
𝜀 = 𝐿 1 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒/𝑠𝑒𝑐, then the self inductance of
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝐿𝑖 a coil will be equal to the induced emf.
𝜀=−
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝜀 = −𝐿 Where, = Rate of change of current
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 𝟏
Does, 𝑳 ∝ 𝜙 and 𝑳 ∝ ?
𝒊

It depends on:

area of cross-section of the coil.

number of turns per unit length in the coil.

length of the coil.

permeability of the core material.
 Find induced emf and (𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 ) in the given situation.

𝐿 =2𝐻
𝐴 𝐵
𝑑𝑖 𝑖
𝜀=𝐿 𝜀 =8𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑖
= 4 𝐴/𝑠
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
Here, = 4 𝐴/𝑠 (increasing)
𝑑𝑡
𝐿 =2𝐻
As the current is increasing, induced current will 𝐴 𝐵
flow opposite to it i.e., from 𝐵 to 𝐴. Thus, point 𝐴 𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
is at higher potential. And we know that potential 𝑖
difference magnitude is 8 𝑉. 𝑑𝑖
= 4 𝐴/𝑠
𝑑𝑡
∴ 𝑉𝐴 −𝑉𝐵 = 8 𝑉
 Find induced emf and (𝑉𝑃 − 𝑉𝑄 ) in the given situation.

𝐿 =5𝐻
𝑄
𝑃
𝑑𝑖 𝑖
𝜀=𝐿 𝜀 = 10 𝑉 𝑑𝑖
𝑑𝑡
= −2 𝐴/𝑠
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
Here, = −2 𝐴/𝑠 (decreasing)
𝑑𝑡
𝐿 =5𝐻
As the current is decreasing, induced current will 𝑃 𝑄
flow in same direction to it i.e., from 𝑄 to 𝑃. 𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
Thus, point 𝑃 is at higher potential. And we know 𝑖
𝑑𝑖
that potential difference magnitude is 10 𝑉. = −2 𝐴/𝑠
𝑑𝑡
∴ 𝑉𝑃 −𝑉𝑄 = 10 𝑉
Find induced emf and (𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 ) .

𝐿 =3𝐻
𝐴 𝐵
Using KVL from 𝐵 to 𝐴, we can write 𝑖
𝑑𝑖
= 3 𝐴/𝑠
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝐵 − 𝐿 = 𝑉𝐴
𝑑𝑡

𝑉𝐵 − 3(3) = 𝑉𝐴

∴ 𝑉𝐵 −𝑉𝐴 = 9 𝑉
 A long solenoid has 1000 turns. When a current of 4 𝐴 flows through it, the magnetic
flux linked with each turn of the solenoid is 4 × 10−3 𝑊𝑏. The self-inductance of the
solenoid is:

a 2𝐻

b 1𝐻
𝑖 = 4𝐴 𝑖
c 4𝐻
𝐸
+ −
d 3𝐻
𝑏
Given: 𝑁 = 1000; 𝑖 = 4 𝐴; 𝜙 = 4 × 10−3 𝑊𝑏

Self Inductance, 𝑁𝜙
𝐿=
𝑖

1000 × 4 × 10−3
𝐿= 𝑖 = 4𝐴 𝑖
4
𝐸
𝐿 = 1000 × 1 × 10−3 + −
𝑏
𝐿 =1𝐻
 What is the self-inductance of a coil which produces 5 𝑉 when the current changes from
3 𝐴 to 2 𝐴 in one millisecond?

a 5000 𝐻

b 5 𝑚𝐻

c 50 𝐻

d 5𝐻
Given: 𝑒 = 5 𝑉, 𝑡 = 10−3 𝑠, 𝐼0 = 3 𝐴, 𝐼1 = 2 𝐴

𝜀
Induced e.m.f., 𝐿=−
𝑑𝐼/𝑑𝑡

𝜀
𝐿=−
𝐼1 − 𝐼𝑜
𝑡1 − 𝑡𝑜

5
𝐿=−
2 − 3 /10−3

𝐿 = 5 𝑚𝐻
 For a coil of 𝐿 = 2 𝑚𝐻, current flowing through it is 𝑡 2 𝑒 −𝑡 . The time at which emf
becomes zero is

a 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐

b 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐

c 4 𝑠𝑒𝑐

d 3 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Given: 𝐿 = 2 𝑚𝐻, 𝑖 = 𝑡 2 𝑒 −𝑡
Magnitude of Induced emf is,

𝑑𝑖
𝑒 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
Since 𝐿 ≠ 0, for emf to be zero, should be zero.
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖 𝑑 2 −𝑡
= 𝑡 𝑒
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑡 2 −1 𝑒 −𝑡 + 2𝑡 𝑒 −𝑡
⟹ 2𝑡 − 𝑡 2 = 0
⟹ 𝑡(2 − 𝑡) = 0 𝑡 = 0 or 𝑡 = 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 EMF is zero at 0 and 2 seconds.
Thus, option a is the correct answer.
 𝑅
𝐵
𝐴
𝑙 𝜙

Magnetic Field inside the solenoid, 𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑛𝑖

Flux, 𝜙 = 𝐵. 𝐴 Where,
[𝜃 = 0° here as 𝐵 and 𝐴Ԧ are along
𝑜
⟹ 𝐵𝐴 cos 0 = 𝐵𝐴 same direction] 𝑙 = Length of coil

𝜙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑛𝑖𝐴 or 𝜙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑛𝑖𝜋𝑅2 𝑅 = Radius of each coil

𝑁 = Total no. of turns

𝜙 = Flux

𝑛 = No. of turns per unit length

 𝑅

𝑙 𝜙

𝜙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑛𝑖𝜋𝑅2
𝑁
Total Flux 𝜙 𝑇 = 𝑁𝜙 = 𝑛𝑙 𝜇𝑜 𝑛𝑖𝜋𝑅2 ∵𝑛=
𝑙
𝜙 𝑇 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝜋𝑅2 𝑙𝑖
𝐿𝑖 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝜋𝑅2 𝑙𝑖 ∵ 𝜙 = 𝐿𝑖

𝐿 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝜋𝑅2 𝑙
 If the number of turns per unit length of a coil of solenoid is doubled, the self-
inductance of solenoid will

a remain unchanged

b be halved

c be doubled

d become four times

Coefficient of self-inductance, 𝐿 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝐴𝑙 𝐴 = Area of the solenoid

As, 𝐿 ∝ 𝑛2
2
𝐿2 𝑛2
=
𝐿1 𝑛1

Given: 𝑛2 = 2𝑛1 2
𝐿2 2𝑛1
=
𝐿1 𝑛1

𝐿2 = 4𝐿1

Thus, option d is the correct answer.

 𝑡=0
𝑎
𝑏
Switch (𝑎 → 𝑏) 𝐿 𝑅
𝑆 + −
𝑖 𝑖
𝐸
𝑖≠ 𝜀
𝑅 𝑡=0
𝐸
+ −

The current in the circuit does not attain the

maximum steady state value (𝐸/𝑅) at once
because the induced emf 𝜀 produced across
the inductor opposes the growth of current.
 𝑑𝑖
Applying Kirchhoff's law:
𝑡=0
@𝑡 𝜀=𝐿
𝑎 𝑑𝑡
+ −
𝐿𝑑𝑖 𝐿𝑑𝑖 𝑏
+𝐸 − − 𝑖𝑅 = 0 ⇒ 𝐸 − = 𝑖𝑅 𝑅
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑆
𝑖 𝑖
𝑡 𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑖
න =න 𝐸
0 𝐿 0 𝐸 − 𝑖𝑅 + −

𝑡 1 𝑑𝑥 1
= − [log 𝑒 𝐸 − 𝑖𝑅 ]𝑖0 (∵ න = − log 𝑒 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑥
𝐿 𝑅 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑥 𝑏

−𝑅𝑡
= log 𝑒 𝐸 − 𝑖𝑅 − log 𝑒 (𝐸)
𝐿
−𝑅𝑡 𝑖𝑅
= log 𝑒 1 −
𝐿 𝐸
 𝑑𝑖
Applying Kirchhoff's law:
𝑡=0
@𝑡 𝜀=𝐿
𝑎 𝑑𝑡
+ −
𝑏
−𝑅𝑡 𝑖𝑅 𝑅
= log 𝑒 1 − 𝑆
𝐿 𝐸 𝑖 𝑖

𝑖𝑅 −𝑅𝑡 𝐸
= [1 − 𝑒 𝐿 ] + −
𝐸

𝐸 −𝑅𝑡
𝑖 = [1 − 𝑒 𝐿 ]
𝑅
 𝑡=0 @𝑡
𝑡→∞
𝐸 𝐸 −𝑅𝑡 𝑎
𝑖≠ 𝑖 = [1 − 𝑒 𝐿 ]
𝑅 𝑡=0 𝑅 𝑏
𝐿 𝑅
𝑆
𝑖
𝑖 = 𝑖max. or 𝑖0 = 𝐸/𝑅 𝑖

−𝑅𝑡 𝐸
𝑖 = 𝑖0 [1 − 𝑒 𝐿 ] + −
 𝑡=0 @𝑡
𝑡→∞
𝐸 𝐸 −𝑅𝑡
𝑖≠
𝑅 𝑡=0
𝑖 = [1 − 𝑒
𝑅
𝐿 ] 𝑖 = 𝑖max. or 𝑖0 = 𝐸/𝑅

𝑎
𝑏
𝐿 𝑅
At steady state (𝑡 → ∞): 𝑆
Short Circuit 𝑖0
𝑖0
The rate of increase of current becomes zero.
Current in the circuit does not depend on self 𝐸
inductance. + −

At steady state (𝑡 → ∞)
 𝑡=0 @𝑡 𝑡→∞

𝐸 𝐸 −𝑅𝑡 𝑖 = 𝑖max. or 𝑖0 = 𝐸/𝑅

𝑖≠ 𝑖 = [1 − 𝑒 𝐿 ]
𝑅 𝑡=0 𝑅 𝑎

𝑏
Time constant of an 𝐿 − 𝑅 circuit (𝜏): 𝑆
𝐿 𝑅
𝑖
𝑖
𝜏 = 𝐿/𝑅 𝑖 = 𝑖0 1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏
𝐸
@𝑡 = 𝜏 + −

𝑖 = 𝑖0 (1 − 𝑒 (−1) )

𝑖 = 0.63 × 𝑖0

Time constant of an 𝐿 − 𝑅 circuit (𝜏) is the time taken by the current to grow from
𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 to 0.632 𝑖0 or 63.2% of its final steady value.
 𝑡=0 @𝑡 𝑡→∞

𝐸 𝐸 −𝑅𝑡 𝑖 = 𝑖max. or 𝑖0 = 𝐸/𝑅

𝑖≠ 𝑖 = [1 − 𝑒 𝐿 ]
𝑅 𝑡=0 𝑅

𝐼
In one time constant, the current 𝑖 is
increased by 63% of its steady state
value. 0.63𝑖0

It takes around 5 time constants, to

reach steady state.

𝜏 𝑡
𝑡=0 @𝑡 𝑡→∞

𝐸 −𝑅𝑡 𝑑𝑖 𝐸 𝑅 − 𝑅𝑡
𝑖 = [1 − 𝑒 𝐿 ] Differentiating, = 0− − 𝑒 𝐿
𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝐿

𝑑𝑖 −
𝑅𝑡 𝑑𝑖
𝐿 = 𝐸. 𝑒 𝐿 𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖 𝐸
At 𝑡 = 0, 𝐿 =𝐸
𝑑𝑡

In one time constant, the emf is

decreased by 63% from its initial value.
𝐸
= 0.37 𝐸
𝑒

𝑡
𝜏
 A coil of inductance 40 𝐻 is connected in series with a resistance of 8 Ω and the
combination is joined to the terminals of a 2 𝑉 battery. The time constant of the circuit is

a 40 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 40 𝐻 8Ω

b 20 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠

c 8 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 2𝑉
+ −
d 5 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
Given:
𝐿 = 40 𝐻 | 𝑅 = 8 Ω | 𝑉 = 2 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
Time constant (𝜏) = 𝐿/R 40 𝐻 8Ω

𝜏 = 40/8 = 5 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
Thus, option d is the correct answer. 2𝑉
+ −
 A solenoid has an inductance of 60 𝐻 and a resistance of 30 𝑜ℎ𝑚. It is connected to a
100 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 battery. How long will it take for the current to reach (𝑒 − 1)/𝑒 ≈ 63.2 % of its
final value

a 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
60 𝐻 30 Ω
b 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠

c 𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 100 𝑉
+ −
d 2𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
 𝑖 = 𝑖0 1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏

For current to reach (𝑒 − 1)/𝑒 ≈ 63.2 % of final value,

−𝑡/𝜏
𝑖0 (𝑒 − 1)/𝑒 = 𝑖0 1 − 𝑒

𝑖0 [1 − 𝑒 (−1) ] = 𝑖0 1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 60 𝐻 30 Ω

Comparing both side:

𝑡 100 𝑉
− = −1 ⇒ 𝑡 = 𝜏
𝜏 + −
𝐿 60
𝜏= = = 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑅 30
Thus, option b is the correct answer.
 𝑡=0
𝑏
𝑐 𝐿 𝑅 Switch (𝑏 → 𝑐)
𝑆
𝑖≠0 𝑡=0
− +

𝐸
+ −
𝑖

The current does not suddenly fall to zero, the

inductor will oppose the decay of current.
 𝑡=0
𝑏 @𝑡

𝑐 𝑖≠0 𝑡=0
𝐿 𝑅
𝑆

𝐸
+ −
𝑖
Applying Kirchhoff's law:
𝑖
𝐿𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑅 𝑡
− = 𝑖𝑅 ⇒ න = − න 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑖0 𝑖 𝐿 0

𝑖 𝑅𝑡
⇒ log 𝑒 =− ⇒ 𝑖 = 𝑖0 𝑒 −𝑅𝑡/𝐿
𝑖0 𝐿
 @𝑡 𝑡=0
𝑡→∞

𝑖 = 𝑖0 𝑒 −𝑅𝑡/𝐿 𝑖≠0 𝑡=0

𝑖=0
𝑏
𝑐 𝐿 𝑅
𝑆

𝐸
+ −
𝑖

At steady state (𝑡 → ∞):

𝑖 = 0, the current in the circuit will become zero.

𝑡→∞ @𝑡 𝑡=0

𝑖=0 𝑖 = 𝑖0 𝑒 −𝑅𝑡/𝐿 𝑖≠0 𝑡=0

𝑏 Time constant of an 𝐿 − 𝑅 circuit (𝜏):

𝑐 𝐿 𝑅 −𝑡/𝜏
𝑆
𝑖 = 𝑖0 𝑒 (∵ 𝜏 = 𝐿/𝑅)
@𝑡 = 𝜏

𝐸 𝑖 = 𝑖0 (𝑒 (−1) )
+ −
𝑖 𝑖 = 0.37 × 𝑖0

Time taken by the current to decay from 𝑖0

to 0.37𝑖0 or 37% of its initial steady value.
𝑡→∞ 𝑡=0
@𝑡

𝑖=0 𝑖 = 𝑖0 𝑒 −𝑅𝑡/𝐿 𝑖≠0 𝑡=0

0.37𝑖0

𝜏 𝑡
 Switch ON

Current through inductor 𝐿

(0 → 𝑖0 )

𝐿𝑑𝑖 𝐸
Back EMF 𝜀 = − + −
𝑑𝑡 𝑖

Inductor opposes
the flow of current
𝜀

Battery needs to work

against back EMF

+ −
Rate of work done is given by:
𝑑𝑊 𝐿
= −𝜀𝑖 ⇒ 𝑑𝑊 = −𝜀𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝐿𝑑𝑖
𝑑𝑊 = − − 𝑖𝑑𝑡 ⇒ 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑖𝐿𝑑𝑖 𝐸
𝑑𝑡 + −
𝑖
𝑊
1 2
න 𝑑𝑊 = න 𝑖𝐿𝑑𝑖 ⇒ 𝑊 = 𝐿𝑖
0 2
0

This energy is stored in the magnetic field generated in the inductor due to the flow of
current.
 A magnetic potential energy stored in a certain inductor is 25 𝑚𝐽, when the current in the
inductor is 60 𝑚𝐴. The value of inductance is……

a 1.389 𝐻
𝐿
b 0.138 𝐻

c 13.89 𝐻
𝐸
d 138.88 𝐻 + −
 1 2
𝑊 = 𝐿𝑖
2
𝐿

1
25 × 10−3 𝐽 = × 𝐿 × 60 × 10−3 𝐴 2
2
𝐸
2 × 25 × 10−3 + −
𝐿=
60 × 60 × 10−6
500 125
𝐿= =
36 9
𝐿 = 13.89 𝐻
Thus, option c is the correct answer.
 A coil of resistance of 20 Ω and inductance 5 𝐻 has been connected to a 200 𝑉 battery.
The maximum energy in the coil is:

a 250 𝐽
5𝐻 20 Ω
b 125 𝐽

c 500 𝐽
200 𝑉
d 100 𝐽 + −
Maximum energy will be at maximum current (𝑖0 )
5𝐻 20 Ω

200
𝐸 = 𝑖0 𝑅 ⇒ 𝑖0 = = 10 𝐴
20 200 𝑉
+ −

1 2
𝑊 = 𝐿𝑖
2

1 2
500
𝑊 = × 5 × 10 =
2 2
𝑊 = 250 𝐽
Thus, option a is the correct answer.
 Primary coil Secondary coil

𝑖′ 𝑖′
𝑖 𝑖

𝐸 𝑮
+ −
𝑏

When two coils are brought in proximity with each other, the magnetic field in one of
the coils tend to link with the other. This further leads to the generation of voltage in
the second coil. This property of a coil which affects or changes the current and
voltage in a secondary coil is called mutual inductance.
 𝑖 𝑖′ Secondary current

𝐴𝐶 𝑮

𝑖 primary 𝐵 primary 𝐵 secondary 𝜙 secondary 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓 induced

𝑖 secondary
 Primary coil Secondary coil

𝑖2 𝑖2
𝑖1 𝑖1

𝐸 𝑮
+ −
𝑏

When two coils are brought in proximity with each other the magnetic field in one of the
coils (in primary coil) tend to link with the other. This further leads to the generation of
voltage in the secondary coil. This property of a coil which affects or changes the current
and voltage in a secondary coil is called mutual inductance.
 𝑖1

1 2
𝜙21
𝜙21 ∝ 𝑖1 𝜙21 : Flux linked with coil 2 due to magnetic 𝑀=
field generated by coil 1 𝑖1
𝜙21 = 𝑀𝑖1
Weber
Coefficient of mutual inductance Unit = Or
Ampere
𝜙21
𝑀=
𝑖1 Dimension: 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 𝐴−2
 The coefficient of mutual inductance of two coils is 6 𝑚𝐻. If the current flowing through
one is 2 𝐴, the induced emf in the second coil will be

a Zero

b 3𝑉

c 3 𝑚𝑉

d 2 𝑚𝑉
Given: 𝑀 = 6 𝑚𝐻, 𝑖1 = 2 𝐴
𝑖1 E.M.F. is induced in the secondary coil
only when current in primary coil
changes.
𝑖1 = 2 𝐴
𝑒2 = zero
𝑒2 𝑮

Thus, option a is the correct answer.

+
−

𝐸
 𝑖1 𝑖2

1 2
𝜙12 ∝ 𝑖2 𝜙21 ∝ 𝑖1
𝜙12 = 𝑀12 𝑖2 𝜙21 = 𝑀21 𝑖1
𝑀12 = 𝑀21 = 𝑀
𝜙12 = 𝑀𝑖2 𝜙21 = 𝑀𝑖1
The theorem states that the two constants 𝑀12 and 𝑀21 are equal in the absence of material medium
between the two coils.
 𝑖1 𝑖2
𝜙12 = 𝑀𝑖2 𝜙21 = 𝑀𝑖1
1 2
Induced EMF in the coil 2 due to coil 1:

𝑑𝜙21 𝑑𝑖1
𝜀2 = − 𝜀2 =𝑀
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑀𝑖1 𝑑𝑖1
𝜀2 = − 𝜀2 = −𝑀 ❖ It states that the magnitude of induced EMF in the
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 secondary coil depends upon the rate of change of
current in the primary coil.
 𝑑𝑖1
𝜀2 =𝑀
𝑑𝑡
𝑖1 𝑖2
𝜙12 = 𝑀𝑖2 𝜙21 = 𝑀𝑖1
1 2

Induced EMF in the coil 1 due to coil 2:

𝑑𝑖2
𝑑𝜙12 𝜀1 =𝑀
𝜀1 = − 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡

𝑑 𝑀𝑖2 𝑑𝑖2 ❖ It states that the magnitude of induced EMF in the

𝜀1 = − 𝜀1 = −𝑀 secondary coil depends upon the rate of change of
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
current in the primary coil (the coil with which a battery
is connected).
 𝑖1 𝑖2

1 2

𝑑𝑖2 𝑑𝑖1
𝜀1 =𝑀 𝜀2 =𝑀
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑖1
If the rate of change of current in the primary coil is 1 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒/𝑠𝑒𝑐, then the coefficient of
𝑑𝑡
mutual-inductance of the two coils, will equals to the induced EMF in a secondary coil.
Two coils have a mutual inductance 0.005 𝐻. The current changes in the first coil
according to the equation 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 where, 𝐼𝑚 = 10 𝐴 and 𝜔 = 100𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑠 −1 . The
maximum vale of the e.m.f induced in the second coil is

a 𝜋

b 2𝜋

c 4𝜋

d 5𝜋
 Given: 𝑀 = 0.005 𝐻, 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 , 𝐼𝑚 = 10 𝐴 , 𝜔 = 100𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑠 −1

𝑑𝑖
Induced E.M.F. 𝜀2 = 𝑀
𝑑𝑡

𝑑(𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡)

𝜀2 = 𝑀
𝑑𝑡 𝜀2 𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 𝑀𝐼𝑚 𝜔

𝜀2 = 𝑀𝐼𝑚 𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝜀2 𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 0.005 × 10 × 100𝜋

𝜀2 𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 5𝜋
𝜀2 𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 𝑀𝐼𝑚 𝜔
Thus, option d is the correct answer.
(When cos 𝜔𝑡 = 1)
Some applications are:

Transformer All the electric devices, which

work with a magnetic field

Electric Generator
Transformer

Transformer is a widely used application of mutual induction. There are usually two coils - primary coil
and secondary coil on the transformer core. The core laminations are joined in the form of strips. The
two coils have high mutual inductance. When an alternating current pass through the primary coil it
creates a varying magnetic flux. As per Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, this change in
magnetic flux induces an emf (electromotive force) in the secondary coil which is linked to the core
having a primary coil.
 Series Combination

𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿𝑒𝑞

𝑖
𝑖 𝜀1
𝜀
𝜀2 𝑖 ≡ 𝜀 𝑖

𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝜀1 = −𝐿1 𝜀2 = −𝐿2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝜀 = 𝜀1 + 𝜀2

𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
−𝐿𝑒𝑞
𝑑𝑡
= −𝐿1 + −𝐿2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ⇒ 𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2
 𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2

For series combination of 𝒏 inductors

𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿𝑛

𝑖 𝑖
𝜀

𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + ⋯ 𝐿𝑛
 Parallel Combination

𝑖1 𝑖2 𝑖
𝑖
𝜀 𝐿1 𝜀 𝜀 𝐿2 ≡ 𝜀 𝐿𝑒𝑞

𝑑𝑖1 𝑑𝑖2 Using (2) in (1), we get

𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 𝜀 = −𝐿1 = −𝐿2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜀 𝜀 𝜀
− =− + −
𝑑𝑖1 𝜀 𝐿𝑒𝑞 𝐿1 𝐿2
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖1 𝑑𝑖2 =− ,
= + 1 𝑑𝑡 𝐿1
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑖2 𝜀 2 1 1 1
=− = +
𝑑𝑡 𝐿2 𝐿𝑒𝑞 𝐿1 𝐿2
 1 1 1
= +
𝐿𝑒𝑞 𝐿1 𝐿2

For parallel combination of 𝒏 inductors

𝑖1 𝑖2 𝑖𝑛
𝑖

𝜀 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿𝑛

1 1 1 1
= + +⋯
𝐿𝑒𝑞 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿𝑛
 𝑀
𝐿1 𝐿2

In general, 𝑀 = 𝐾 𝐿1 𝐿2

Where 𝐾 is the coupling constant

0≤𝐾≤1

𝐾 = 1 when there is 100% flux linkage

𝐾 depends on :
𝐿1 𝐿2
Ι Distance between coil
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐾
𝐾1 < 𝐾
𝐾1
ΙΙ Relative orientation of the coils
𝐿1

𝐾2 𝐿2 𝐾2 < 𝐾

ΙΙ Geometrical factors
𝐿1
𝐾3 = 0
𝐾3
𝐿2
 Two coils of self-inductance 2 𝑚𝐻 and 8 𝑚𝐻 are placed so close together that the
effective flux in one coil is completely linked with the other. The mutual inductance
between these coils is

a 16 𝑚𝐻

b 10 𝑚𝐻

c 6 𝑚𝐻

d 4 𝑚𝐻
In general, 𝑀 = 𝐾 𝐿1 𝐿2

𝐾 = 1 when there is 100% flux linkage 𝑀

𝐿1 = 2 𝑚𝐻 𝐿2 = 8 𝑚𝐻
∴ 𝑀 = 2 × 8 = 4 𝑚𝐻

Thus, option d is the correct answer.

Series Combination (Aiding)

𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑀

Series Combination (Opposing)

𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 − 2𝑀
 Two coils connected in series have a self-inductance of 20 𝑚𝐻 and 60 𝑚𝐻 respectively.
The total inductance of the combination was found to be 100 𝑚𝐻. Determine the
amount of mutual inductance that exists between the two coils assuming that they are
aiding each other.

a 20 𝑚𝐻
𝐿1 𝐿2
b 30 𝑚𝐻

c 15 𝑚𝐻 𝑀

d 10 𝑚𝐻
Given: 𝐿1 = 20 𝑚𝐻, 𝐿2 = 60 𝑚𝐻, 𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 100 𝑚𝐻

𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑀
𝐿1 𝐿2

100 = 20 + 60 + 2𝑀
𝑀

2𝑀 = 100 − 20 − 60

𝑀 = 10 𝑚𝐻 Thus, option d is the correct answer.

Parallel Combination (Aiding)

𝐿1 𝐿2 − 𝑀2
𝐿𝑒𝑞 =
𝐿1 + 𝐿2 − 2𝑀

Parallel Combination (Opposing)

𝐿1 𝐿2 − 𝑀2
𝐿𝑒𝑞 =
𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑀
 Two inductors whose self-inductance are of 75 𝑚𝐻 and 55 𝑚𝐻 respectively are
connected together in parallel aiding. Their mutual inductance is given as 22.5 𝑚𝐻.
Calculate the total inductance of the parallel combination.

a 42.57 𝑚𝐻

b 44.61 𝑚𝐻
𝐿1 𝐿2
c 45.08 𝑚𝐻

d 40.80 𝑚𝐻
Given: 𝐿1 = 75 𝑚𝐻, 𝐿2 = 55 𝑚𝐻, 𝑀 = 22.5 𝑚𝐻

𝐿1 𝐿2 − 𝑀2 𝐿1 𝐿2
𝐿𝑒𝑞 =
𝐿1 + 𝐿2 − 2𝑀

75 × 55 − 22.5 2
𝐿𝑒𝑞 =
75 + 55 − 2 × 22.5

3618.75
𝐿𝑒𝑞 =
85

𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 42.57 𝑚𝐻 Thus, option a is the correct answer.

 A device that converts mechanical energy into electric energy.

The AC Generator’s input supply is mechanical energy supplied by steam turbines, gas
turbines and combustion engines. The output is alternating electrical power in the form of
alternating voltage and current.
AC generators work on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction, which states that electromotive force – EMF or voltage – is
generated in a current-carrying conductor that cuts a uniform magnetic
field.
This can either be achieved by rotating a
conducting coil in a static magnetic field or
rotating the magnetic field containing the
stationary conductor.

Alternating current is a type of electric current that changes direction with time
periodically.
Most appliances in our day-to-day life use AC.

The current we get in our houses is 220 𝑉, 50 𝐻𝑧 AC.

Strong magnets Armature

Slip rings

Carbon brushes
Magnets:

Permanent magnet or an electromagnet used

to produce a strong uniform magnetic field.

Armature:

A coil wound over soft-iron core. The two ends

of the coil are connected to two slip rings.
Axis of rotation is in the plane of the coil but
perpendicular to the magnetic field.
Slip rings:

Two small rings slip against the brushes so that the

contact is maintained all the time

Carbon brushes:

Two graphite brushes permanently touch the slip rings.

These brushes are connected to terminals of the circuit.

 The generated EMF depends on the number of armature coil turns, magnetic field
strength, and the speed of the rotating field.

When the armature rotates between the poles of the magnet upon an axis perpendicular to
the magnetic field, the flux linkage of the armature changes continuously. As a result, an
electric current flows through the galvanometer and the slip rings and brushes. The
galvanometer swings between positive and negative values. This indicates that there is an
alternating current flowing through the galvanometer.
Magnetic flux changes as the armature moves.

Faraday’s Law tells us that this generates emf in the coil.

The direction of the induced current can be identified using Fleming’s right-hand
rule.
 𝐼 𝐵

The direction of induced current can be found by Fleming’s Right-hand rule

Current is going in on one side of armature and coming out of another side.

Hold the right-hand forefinger, middle finger and the thumb at right angles to each
other. If the forefinger represents the direction of the magnetic field, the thumb points in
the direction of motion or applied force, then the middle finger points in the direction of
the induced current.
 Magnitude of Induced emf :

For an armature moving at a constant angular speed 𝜔

𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡
𝐵
𝜃
The flux (𝜙) passing through the armature at any point
𝐴
𝜙 = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡

Where,
𝐵 = Magnetic field due to external magnets
𝐴 = Area of the armature coil
 Magnitude of Induced emf :
𝜙 = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡

𝑑𝜙
𝐵 𝜀=− = 𝐵𝐴𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜃 𝑑𝑡
𝐴 For 𝑁 turns
𝜀 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝜀0 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝜔
 Circuit symbol of 𝐴𝐶 generator
𝑅: resistance of the coil

Magnitude of Induced current :

Emf varies sinusoidally with time
𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡
Angular frequency: 𝜔 𝑖𝑅 = 𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡

2𝜋
𝜀0
Time period: 𝑇 = . 𝑖 = sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜔 𝑅
Peak emf: 𝜀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜀0 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡
 𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡
Induced emf

Time

𝑇/4 𝑇/2 3𝑇/4 𝑇

Induced emf

Time

By repeating this cycle, we get AC current of a certain frequency.

In India, the frequency of these cycles is 50 𝐻𝑧.

 In a region of uniform magnetic induction 𝐵 = 10−2 Tesla, a circular coil of radius 30 𝑐𝑚 and resistance
𝜋 2 Ω is rotated about an axis which is perpendicular to the direction of 𝐵 and which forms a diameter of the
coil. If the coil rotates at 200 𝑟𝑝𝑚, the amplitude of the alternating current induced in the coil is

a 4𝜋 2 𝑚𝐴

b 30 𝑚𝐴

c 6 𝑚𝐴

d 200 𝑚𝐴
𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜀0 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝜔
𝜀0 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝜔
𝐼0 = =
𝑅 𝑅

200
2𝜋× ×1×10−2 ×𝜋 0.3 2
60
𝐼0 =
𝜋2

= 6 × 10−3 𝐴 = 6 𝑚𝐴 Thus, option c is the correct answer.

𝐼0 = 6 𝑚𝐴
 Self Inductance
Motional
EMF

Mutual
Induction AC Generator
Lenz Law

Introduction
Eddy Current

Combination
of Inductors
Magnetic flux:
The number of magnetic field lines passing normally through a given surface.

𝜙𝐵 ∝ 𝐵 𝜙𝐵 ∝ 𝐴 SI Unit : Weber (𝑊𝑏)

𝜙𝐵 = 𝐵 cos 𝜃 𝐴Ԧ 𝜙𝐵 = 𝐵. 𝐴Ԧ 𝜙𝐵 = න 𝐵𝑑𝐴 cos 𝜃

Faraday’s first law:

Whenever there is a change in magnetic flux linked with a conductor, an emf is
induced in conductor. If it is a closed circuit, induced current will flow through it.

Faraday’s second law:

The magnitude of the induced emf in a conducting coil is proportional to the rate
at which the magnetic flux through that coil changes with time.
∆𝜙𝐵
𝜀∝
∆𝑡
Induced EMF:
∆𝜙𝐵 𝑑𝜙𝐵
Average emf (𝜀𝐴𝑣𝑔 ) = 𝑁 Instantaneous emf (𝜀𝐼𝑛𝑠 ) = 𝑁
∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Induced current: ∆𝜙𝐵 𝑑𝜙𝐵
𝜀𝐴𝑣𝑔 𝑁 𝑁
Average current (𝑖𝐴𝑣𝑔 ) = ∆𝑡 Instantaneous current (𝑖𝐼𝑛𝑠 ) = 𝑑𝑡
=
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
Total charge flow:
Δ𝜙𝐵 cause
Δ𝑞 = 𝑁
𝑟 effect
Lenz’s law:
The polarity of induced emf is such that it tends to produce 𝑑𝜙𝐵
a current which opposes the change in magnetic flux that 𝜀 = −𝑁
𝑑𝑡
produced it.
opposition
Motional EMF:
The EMF developed due to motion of conductor in
magnetic field is called as motional EMF.
𝐹Ԧ𝑚 = −𝑒 𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵 ⇒ 𝐹Ԧ𝑚 = 𝑒𝑣𝐵 𝐹Ԧ𝐸 = 𝑒𝐸
𝑣𝐵𝑙 Direction: By Lenz’s law
𝜀 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙 𝑖=
𝑅+𝑟 𝐵, 𝑣Ԧ and 𝑙Ԧ are mutually ⊥

Different cases of motional EMF:

𝑙Ԧ ∥ 𝐵

OR

𝑣Ԧ ∥ 𝐵
𝐵 ⊥ 𝑣Ԧ ⊥ 𝑙Ԧ 𝑣Ԧ ∥ 𝑙Ԧ 𝜀 = 𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵 . 𝑙Ԧ
𝜀=0
𝜀 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙 𝜀=0 𝜀 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙 sin 𝜃
Motional EMF:
A rod of length 𝑙 having resistance 𝑟 is sliding on frictionless rails which have 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 resistance.
External force required to keep the rod moving with constant velocity 𝑣.
𝐵2 𝑙2 𝑣
𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 =
𝑅+𝑟
𝐵2 𝑙2 𝑣 2
Power 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑜 =
𝑅+𝑟
Acceleration of the rod
𝐵2 𝑙2 𝑣
𝑎=− −𝑣𝑒 sign implies retardation
𝑚(𝑅 + 𝑟)

′𝑣 ′ as a function of displacement '𝑥′

𝐵2 𝑙 2
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜 − 𝑥
𝑚 𝑅+𝑟
Distance covered by the rod before it stops
𝑣𝑜 𝑚 𝑅 + 𝑟
𝑥=
𝐵2 𝑙 2
Eddy currents:
Eddy currents are loops of electrical current induced within conductors by a changing
magnetic field in the conductor according to Faraday's law of induction.
Advantages: Electromagnetic brakes, electromagnetic damping in galvanometers
Disadvantages: Overheating of metallic cores of electric devices
By introducing slots in the conducting plate one can reduce the area available for the
generation of eddy currents.
Motional EMF in rotating conducting rod: Motional EMF in rotating conducting
disc:

𝐵𝜔𝑙 2 𝐵𝜔𝑙 2 𝐵𝜔𝑟 2

𝜀= 𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉𝑋 = 𝑉𝑅 − 𝑉𝑂 =
2 2 2
Motional EMF in a rotating arbitrary shaped conducting wire
𝐵𝜔𝑙 2 𝐵𝜔𝑙 2
𝜀= 𝑉𝑂 − 𝑉𝐴 =
2 2
𝑙: Distance between the ends of wire
Electrical components
Active electrical component
Active elements generate energy for any device. It is the core component to operate the device.
Active components control the charge flow in electrical or electronic circuits.
Example : Battery
Passive electrical component
A passive element is an electrical component that does not generate power but instead
dissipates, stores and/or releases it.
Example : Resistor, capacitor, inductor
Inductance
The induced emf across a coil is directly proportional to the rate of change of current through it.
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝑉∝
𝑑𝑡 Induced EMF: 𝜀 = −𝐿
𝑑𝑡
Self inductance
Self-inductance is the property of the current-carrying coil that resists or opposes the change
in current flowing through it.
𝑁𝜙
Coefficient of self inductance = 𝐿 = 𝐿 = 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 𝐴−2
𝑖
Self inductance depends on:
• area of cross-section of the coil. • number of turns per unit length in the coil.
• length of the coil. • permeability of the core material.
Coefficient self inductance for a long solenoid
𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑛𝑖 𝜙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑛𝑖𝜋𝑅2 𝜙 = 𝐿𝑖 𝑙 = Length of coil 𝑅 = Radius of each coil
𝐿 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝜋𝑅2 𝑙 𝑁 = Total no. of turns 𝜙 = Flux
𝑛 = No. of turns per unit length
Growth of current in LR circuit
@𝑡 = 0 @𝑡 = 𝑡 @𝑡 → ∞
𝐸 𝐸 −𝑅𝑡
𝑖≠ 𝑖 = [1 − 𝑒 𝐿 ] 𝑖 = 𝑖max. or 𝑖0 = 𝐸/𝑅
𝑅 𝑡=0 𝑅
Decay of current in LR circuit
@𝑡 → ∞ @𝑡 = 𝑡 @𝑡 = 0
𝑖=0 𝑖 = 𝑖0 𝑒 −𝑅𝑡/𝐿 𝑖≠0 𝑡=0

Time constant of LR circuit

Time constant (𝜏): 𝐿/𝑅
In case of growth of current
𝐸 −𝑅𝑡
𝑖 = [1 − 𝑒 𝐿 ] @𝑡 = 𝜏
𝑅 𝑖 = 𝑖0 (1 − 𝑒 (−1) ) = 0.63 × 𝑖0
Time taken by the current to grow from 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 to 0.632 𝑖0 or 63.2% of its final steady value.
In case of decay of current
𝑖 = 𝑖0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏
@𝑡 = 𝜏 𝑖 = 𝑖0 (𝑒 (−1) ) = 0.37 × 𝑖0
Time taken by the current to decay from 𝑖0 to 0.37 𝑖0 or 37% of its initial steady value.
Magnetic energy stored in an inductor
1 2
𝑊 = 𝐿𝑖
2
Mutual inductance
𝑖 primary 𝐵 primary 𝐵 secondary 𝜙 secondary 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓 induced 𝑖 secondary

𝜙21 ∝ 𝑖1 𝜙21 : Flux linked with 2 due to magnetic field of 1

𝜙21 = 𝑀𝑖1 𝑀: Coefficient of mutual inductance

𝜙21
𝑀= Dimension: 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 𝐴−2 Or Henry 𝐻
𝑖1
Reciprocity theorem
Experiments and calculations that combine Ampere’s law and Biot-Savart law confirm that the two
constants, 𝑀12 and 𝑀21 are equal in the absence of material medium between the two coils.
𝑀12 = 𝑀21 = 𝑀
Induced EMF in second coil
𝑑𝑖1 𝑑𝑖2
𝜀2 = −𝑀 𝜀1 = −𝑀
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Applications of mutual inductance: Transformers, electric generator etc.
Combination of inductors
For series combination of 𝒏 inductors For parallel combination of 𝒏 inductors
1 1 1 1
𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + ⋯ 𝐿𝑛 = + +⋯
𝐿𝑒𝑞 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿𝑛
Coupling constant 𝑀
𝐿1 𝐿2
In general, 𝑀 = 𝐾 𝐿1 𝐿2 Where 𝐾 is the coupling constant
0≤𝐾≤1 𝐾 = 1 when there is 100 % flux linkage 𝐾
𝐾 depends on:
Ι Distance between coil ΙΙ Relative orientation of the coils
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿1
𝐾1 < 𝐾 𝐾2 < 𝐾
𝐾1 𝐿2
𝐾2
IΙΙ Geometrical factors

𝐾3 = 0
Combination of inductors
Series Combination (Aiding) Series Combination (Opposing)

𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑀 𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 − 2𝑀
Parallel Combination (Aiding) Parallel Combination (Opposing)

𝐿1 𝐿2 − 𝑀2 𝐿1 𝐿2 − 𝑀2
𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿𝑒𝑞 =
𝐿1 + 𝐿2 − 2𝑀 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑀
AC generator
AC generators work on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, which states that
electromotive force – EMF or voltage – is generated in a current-carrying conductor that cuts a uniform
magnetic field.
The current we get in our houses is 220 𝑉, 50 𝐻𝑧 AC

Magnitude of Induced emf :

𝑑𝜙
𝜙 = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝜀=− = 𝐵𝐴𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
For 𝑁 turns, 𝜀 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡 Where, 𝜀0 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝜔
Time period : Magnitude of Induced current :
2𝜋 𝜀0
𝑇 = 𝑖 = sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜔 𝑅