D.C.

Series Circuits:
There are two types of current. One is direct current (dc), in which ideally the flow of charge (current)
does not change in magnitude or direction. The other is sinusoidal alternating current (ac), in which
the flow of charge is continually changing in magnitude and direction.
Components are connected in series when they carry the same current. The following figure shows a
voltage source connected to a series circuit that contains three resistors 𝑹𝟏 , 𝑹𝟐 and 𝑹𝟑 .

Note that:
* There is only one path for the current.
* The circuit elements are connected in cascade so that
the output current of one element becomes the input
current for the next.
* The same current (I) exists in each circuit element.
𝑰 ≡ 𝑰𝟏 ≡ 𝑰𝟐 ≡ 𝑰𝟑 ≡ … … … ≡ 𝑰𝒏 ampere (A)
Where 𝑰𝟏 , 𝑰𝟐 and 𝑰𝟑 are the currents in resistors 𝑹𝟏 , 𝑹𝟐 and 𝑹𝟑 , respectively.
1
Notes:
1) A rise of potential occurs in an active elements (source) when going from (-) to (+) through the
source, in the direction of current.

2) A drop of potential occurs in a passive element (e.g. resistor) when going from (+) to (-) through
the element in the direction of current.

* The current is from point (a) to point (b). This means that terminal (a) is more positive than terminal
(b) (i.e. the potential at (a) is higher than that at (b) ). If it were not, current would not flow from (a) to
(b) but from (b) to (a)
* 𝑽𝟏 is equal 𝑽𝒂𝒃 (i.e. 𝑽𝟏 is the voltage measured from point (a) to point (b) ). This voltage will be a
positive voltage because it is the difference in potential between the more positive point (a) and the
less positive point (b). But 𝑽𝒂𝒃 is recorded as a negative voltage since (b) is more negative than point
(a).
2
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL):
States that the algebraic sum of all voltage rises and drops taken around any closed path (or mesh or
loop) in any circuit is zero.
𝑵

𝑽𝒏 = 𝟎
𝒏=𝟏
Or 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑 + … … … + 𝑽𝒏 = 𝟎
From the fig., with CW directions:
+𝑬 − 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐 = 𝟎
Where E is the voltage rise, 𝑽𝟏 & 𝑽𝟐 are the voltage drops.
Notes:
* Clockwise direction CW will be used for all applications of KVL.
* Plus sign (+) is assigned to a potential rise (- to +).
* Minus sign (-) is assigned to a potential drop (+ to -).
Example: for the following circuit:
a) Write the equation for all circuit elements
using KVL, stating at point a. 3
b) Find the elements that are passive for the given current.
c) Find the elements that are active for the given current.
Sol:
a) −𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟑 + 𝑽𝟒 − 𝑽𝟓 + 𝑽𝟔 − 𝑽𝟕 + 𝑽𝟏 = 𝟎
b) The passive elements are: 𝑽𝟐 , 𝑽𝟑 , 𝑽𝟓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑽𝟕 .
c) The active elements are: 𝑽𝟏 , 𝑽𝟒 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑽𝟔 .
Series Circuit Relations:
Now, we are ready to summarize current, voltage, resistance and power relation for series circuits:
It is known that:
𝑰 = 𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 = 𝑰𝟑 = … … … = 𝑰𝒏 amperes (A)
From KVL:
𝑬 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑 + … … … + 𝑽𝒏 volt (V)
By dividing:
E/I = 𝑽𝟏 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑 𝑰𝟑 + … … … + 𝑽𝒏 𝑰𝒏
Which from ohm’s law yields:
𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 + … … … + 𝑹𝒏 ohm’s (Ω)
Finally,
EI =𝑽𝟏 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑 𝑰𝟑 + … … … + 𝑽𝒏 𝑰𝒏
OR 𝑷𝑻 = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 + 𝑷𝟑 + … … … + 𝑷𝒏 watts (w) 4
Example: Three resistors ( 𝑹𝟏 , 𝑹𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹𝟑 ) having resistances of 20, 40 and 100Ω, respectively, are
connected in series to an ideal voltage source and draw 100mA. Calculate the :
a) Total resistance of the circuit.
b) Voltage drop across each resistor.
c) Total supply voltage E, by two methods.
d) Power dissipated by each resistor, by three methods.
e) Total power, by four methods.
Sol:
a) 𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 = 𝟐𝟎 + 𝟒𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎Ω
b) 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑰𝑹𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 ∗ 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟐𝑽 e)
𝑽𝟐 = 𝑰𝑹𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 ∗ 𝟒𝟎 = 𝟒𝑽 𝑷𝑻 = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 + 𝑷𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟒 + 𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝒘
𝑽𝟑 = 𝑰𝑹𝟑 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝑽 𝑷𝑻 = 𝑽𝑻 𝑰 = 𝟏𝟔 𝟏𝟎𝟎 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟑 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝑾
c) 𝑬 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑 = 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟒 + 𝟐 = 𝟏𝟔𝑽 𝑽𝟐𝑻 𝟏𝟔𝟐
𝑬 = 𝑰𝑹 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 *160=16V 𝑷 𝑻 = 𝑹𝑻 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝑾
d) 𝑷𝟏 = 𝑽𝟏 𝑰𝟏 = 𝟐 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒘 𝑷𝑻 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝑻 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝑾
𝑽𝟐𝟏 𝟒
𝑷𝟏 = 𝑹𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒘
𝑷𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝟏 = (𝟏𝟎𝟎 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 )𝟐 ∗ 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒘
𝑽𝟐𝟐 𝟐
𝑷 𝟐 = 𝑽𝟐 𝑰𝟐 = 𝑹𝟐 = 𝑰 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝒘
𝑽𝟐𝟑
𝑷 𝟑 = 𝑽𝟑 𝑰𝟑 = 𝑹𝟑 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝟑 = 𝟏𝒘
5
Voltage Divider Rule:
∴
𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
𝑬
& 𝑰=
𝑹𝑻
𝑬
∴ 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑰 ∗ 𝑹 𝟏 = 𝑹 𝟏 ∗
𝑹𝑻
𝑬 ------- Voltage divider rule
& 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑰 ∗ 𝑹 𝟐 = 𝑹𝟐 ∗
𝑹𝑻

In general, the voltage across a single or combination of elements in series circuits, without calculating
the current can be found by the voltage divider rule:
𝑹𝒙
𝑽𝒙 = 𝑬 ∗ -------- General form
𝑹𝑻
Where: 𝑽𝒙 : 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒂𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝑹𝒙
𝑬: 𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒚 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒂𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔.
𝑹𝑻 : 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆.
Example: A 40kΩ and a 20kΩ are connected in series to 33V-source. Without finding the current,
calculate the:
a) 𝑽𝟏 , 𝑽𝟐
b) 𝑷𝟏 , 𝑷𝟐 6
Sol:
𝑹𝟏 𝟒𝟎𝒌
a) 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑬 ∗ = 𝟑𝟑 ∗ = 𝟐𝟐𝑽
𝑹𝑻 𝟔𝟎𝒌
𝑹 𝟐𝟎𝒌
𝑽𝟐 = 𝑬 ∗ 𝟐 = 𝟑𝟑 ∗ = 𝟏𝟏𝑽
𝑹𝑻 𝟔𝟎𝒌
𝑽𝟐𝟏 (𝟐𝟐)𝟐
b) 𝑷𝟏 = 𝑹𝟏 = 𝟒𝟎𝒌 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟏𝒎𝒘
𝑽𝟐𝟐 (𝟏𝟏)𝟐
𝑷𝟏 = 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎𝒌 = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟓𝒎𝒘

Example: Three resistors 𝑹𝟏 , 𝑹𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹𝟑 are connected in series to 220V supply. The combined voltage
drop across 𝑹𝟏 and 𝑹𝟐 is 140V and that across 𝑹𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹𝟑 is 180 V. If the total resistance of the circuit
is 11 kΩ. Calculate 𝑹𝟏 , 𝑹𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹𝟑 .
𝑬 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝑽
𝑰= = = 𝟐𝟎𝒎𝑨 ∴𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑
𝑹𝑻 𝟏𝟏𝒌Ω
∴ 𝟏𝟏𝒌Ω = 𝟕𝒌 − 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝟗𝒌 − 𝑹𝟐
𝑹𝑨 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹 𝟐 → 𝑹𝟏 = 𝑹𝑨 − 𝑹𝟐
∴ 𝟏𝟏𝒌 = 𝟕𝒌 − 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝟗𝒌 − 𝑹𝟐
𝟏𝟒𝟎
𝑹𝑨 = = 𝟕𝒌Ω ∴ 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟏𝟔𝒌Ω − 𝟏𝟏𝒌Ω = 𝟓𝒌Ω
𝟐𝟎𝒎𝑨
𝑹𝟐 𝟓𝒌
𝑹𝑩 = 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹 𝟑 → 𝑹𝟑 = 𝑹𝑩 − 𝑹𝟐 ∴ 𝑽𝑹𝟐 = 𝟏𝟒𝟎 ∗ = 𝟏𝟒𝟎 ∗ = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑽
𝑹𝑨 𝟕𝒌
𝟏𝟖𝟎
𝑹𝑩 =
𝟐𝟎𝒎𝑨
= 𝟗𝒌Ω 7
∴ 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝑽 = 𝑽𝑹𝟏 + 𝑽𝑹𝟐 → 𝑽𝑹𝟏 = 𝟏𝟒𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟒𝟎𝑽
𝑽𝑹 𝟏 𝟒𝟎𝑽
∴ 𝑹𝟏 = = = 𝟐𝒌Ω
𝑰 𝟐𝟎𝒎𝑨
∴ 𝟏𝟖𝟎 = 𝑽𝑹𝟐 + 𝑽𝑹𝟑 → 𝑽𝑹𝟑 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟖𝟎𝑽
𝑽𝑹 𝟑 𝟖𝟎𝑽
∴ 𝑹𝟑 = = = 𝟒𝒌Ω
𝑰 𝟐𝟎𝒎𝑨
Home work:
Q1) Three resistors 𝑹𝟏 , 𝑹𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹𝟑 are connected in series to a 100V supply. If 𝑹𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎Ω,
𝑰𝟐 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝒎𝑨 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑽𝟑 = 𝟒𝟎𝒗, calculate a) 𝑽𝟏 b) 𝑹𝟐 c) 𝑹𝟑 . (Ans: 25v, 140Ω, 160Ω)

Q2) Determine the voltage across 𝑹𝟑 if the voltage across (𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 + 𝑹𝟒 ) = 27v. (Ans:6v)

4Ω
2Ω
3Ω

8
Voltage Sources in Series:
Voltage sources can be connected in series to increase or decrease the total voltage applied to a
system. The net voltage is determined by summing the sources with the same polarity and subtracting
the total of the sources with opposite ‘‘pressure’’. The net polarity is the polarity of the larger sum.
Example:

Here, the sources are all ‘‘pressuring’’ current to the right,

∴ 𝑬𝑻 = 𝑬𝟏 + 𝑬𝟐 + 𝑬𝟑 = 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟔 + 𝟐 = 𝟏𝟖𝒗

In this connection, the greater ‘‘pressure’’ is to the left

𝑬𝑻 = 𝑬𝟐 + 𝑬𝟑 − 𝑬𝟏 = 𝟗 + 𝟑 − 𝟒 = 𝟖𝒗
Interchanging Series Elements:
The elements of a series circuit can be interchanged without affecting the total resistance, current, or
power to each element.
9
Example: Determine I and the voltage across the 7Ω resistor for this fig.
4Ω 7Ω

50V 12.5V
Sol: 4Ω

We can re-draw the network as follows:

4Ω 4Ω
4Ω 4Ω
12.5V
50V 7Ω 7Ω
37.5V
∴𝑹𝑻 = 𝟐 𝟒 + 𝟕 = 𝟏𝟓Ω
𝑬 𝟑𝟕.𝟓
∴𝑰= = = 𝟐. 𝟓𝑨 →∴ 𝑽𝟕Ω = 𝑰𝑹 = 𝟐. 𝟓 ∗ 𝟕 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟓𝑽
𝑹𝑻 𝟏𝟓

Notation:
The symbol for the ground connection appears in the following figure, with its defined potential level-
zero volts.
0V
10
The following figures show a grounded supply:

In either case, it is understood that the negative terminal of the battery and the bottom of the resistor
𝑹𝟐 are at ground potential.
+12V
12V

The notation 𝑽𝒂𝒃 (double-subscript notation) for the potential defference appearing in the following
fig. specifies that the potential at (a) is higher than that at (b) by 6v.

𝑽𝒂 = 𝟏𝟒𝒗 𝑽𝒂 = 𝟏𝟔𝒗
While for this fig,. 𝑽𝒂𝒃 = −𝟒𝒗
𝑽𝒂𝒃 = +𝟔𝑽
𝑽𝒃 = 𝟐𝟎𝒗 11
𝑽𝒃 = 𝟖𝒗
If a single-subscript notation such as (𝑽𝒂 ) is used, it is understood that 𝑽𝒂 is the potential from point
(a) to ground.
𝑽𝒂 = 𝟓𝑽

Example: For the following circuit, find the voltage at point x.

Sol:
By VDR:
𝟔𝟎𝒌
𝑽𝟔𝟎𝒌 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 ∗
𝟐𝟎𝒌+𝟔𝟎𝒌
∴ 𝑽𝟔𝟎𝒌 = 𝑽𝒙 = 𝟕𝟓𝑽
Example: For the following circuit, find the voltage 𝑽𝒙 with respect to ground.
Sol: By KVL for loop 1:
−𝑽𝒙 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝟖𝟎 = 𝟎
𝑬𝑻 = 𝟔𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝑽 ∴ 𝑽 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝟖𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎𝑽
𝒙
𝟏𝟔𝟎
𝑽𝑹𝟏 = 𝑽𝑹𝟐 = = 𝟖𝟎𝑽 By KVL for loop 2:
𝟐
−𝟖𝟎 + 𝟔𝟎+𝑽𝒙 = 𝟎
∴ 𝑽𝒙 = 𝟖𝟎 − 𝟔𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎𝑽
12
Example: Determine 𝑽𝒂𝒃 , 𝑽𝒄𝒃 and 𝑽𝒄 for this network.
Sol:

25Ω 25Ω

20Ω
20Ω

𝟑𝟓+𝟏𝟗
𝑰= = 𝟏. 𝟐𝑨
𝟒𝟓Ω
∴ 𝑽𝒂𝒃 = 𝑰𝑹𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟐 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟑𝟎𝑽
𝑽𝒄𝒃 = −𝑰𝑹𝟏 = − 𝟏. 𝟐 𝟐𝟎 = −𝟐𝟒𝑽
𝑽𝒄 = −𝑬𝟏 = −𝟏𝟗𝑽

13