Introduction to Energy Storage Elements

Outline:

 Introduction
 Capacitors
 Series and Parallel Capacitors
 Inductors
 Series and Parallel Inductors

Notes:

a. Introduction

Capacitors and inductors do not dissipate energy (unlike the resistors), they
only store energy and release it later. For these reasons, they are called storage
elements. With capacitors and inductors, we can analyse more practical circuits
and be able to come up with more applications.

b. Capacitors

Is a passive element designed to store energy in its electric fields. Besides

resistors, capacitors are the most common components.

A capacitor consists of two conducting plates separated by an insulator (or

dielectric).

A typical construction of a capacitor is shown below:

When a voltage source 𝑣 is connected to the capacitor as shown in the circuit

below,
The source deposits a positive charge 𝑞 on one plate and negative charge −𝑞
on the other. The capacitor is said to store the electric charge. The amount of
charge stored 𝑞 is directly proportional to the applied voltage 𝑣 so that

𝑞 = 𝐶𝑣

Where 𝐶 is the constant of proportionality known as the capacitance of the

capacitor.

Capacitance is the ratio of the charge on one plate of a capacitor to the voltage
difference between the two plates measured in farads (F, 1 farad = 1
coulomb/volt).

The capacitance depends on the on the physical dimensions of the capacitor.

For example, the parallel plate capacitor has a capacitance value of

𝜖𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑

Wherein
𝐴 is the surface area
𝑑 is the distance between the plates
𝜖 is the permittivity of free space

Though the above equation applies only to parallel plate capacitors, in general,
three factors determine the value of the capacitance:

1. The surface area of the plates – the larger the area, the bigger the
capacitance.
2. The spacing between the plates – the smaller the spacing, the greater the
capacitance.
3. The permittivity of the material – the higher the permittivity, the greater the
capacitance.
To obtain the current and voltage relationship of the capacitor, we take the
derivative of both sides of 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑣 and noting that 𝑖 = , gives us
 𝑑𝑣
𝑖=𝐶
𝑑𝑡

This is the current-voltage relationship for a capacitor, assuming passive sign

convention. The capacitor that satisfies the above equation are said to be linear.
We assume that all capacitors moving forward are linear.

The voltage-current relation of the capacitor can be obtained by integrating both

sides of the equation, we get.

1
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑖(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 + 𝑣(𝑡 )
𝐶

Wherein 𝑣(𝑡 ) = 𝑞(𝑡 )/𝐶. The equation above shows that the capacitor voltage
depends on the history of the capacitor current. Hence, the capacitor has
memory.

The instantaneous power delivered to the capacitor is

𝑑𝑣
𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝐶𝑣
𝑑𝑡

The energy stored in the Capacitor is, therefore

( )
𝑑𝑣 1 1
𝑤= 𝑝(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 = 𝐶 𝑣 𝑑𝜏 = 𝐶 𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = 𝐶𝑣 − 𝐶𝑣(−∞)
𝑑𝜏 ( ) 2 2

But 𝑣(−∞) = 0 since at 𝑡 = −∞ the capacitor is initially uncharged. Thus

1
𝑤 = 𝐶𝑣
2

In terms of charge, we can also rewrite the above equation as

𝑞
𝑤=
2𝐶

The above equation represents the energy stored in the electric field that exists
between the plates of the capacitor. This energy can be retrieved since an ideal
capacitor cannot dissipate energy.

Please note the following properties of a capacitor:

1. A capacitor in an open circuit is dc – because the voltage across the
capacitor is not changing with time and the current through the capacitor is
zero.

2. The voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantaneously, meaning

the voltage must be continuous. The capacitor resists an abrupt change in
voltage and a discontinuous change requires infinite current – which is
physically impossible. Do note that the current across a capacitor can
change instantaneously.

A voltage that is permissible across a capacitor is like the one below:

Whereas a voltage waveform below is not allowed across a capacitor

3. The ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy – it takes power from the
circuit when storing energy in its field and returns previously stored energy
when delivering power to the circuit.

Example 1

The current through a 100 𝜇F capacitor is 𝑖(𝑡) = 50 sin(120𝜋𝑡) mA. Calculate

the voltage across it at 𝑡 = 1 ms and 𝑡 = 5 ms. Take 𝑣(0) = 0

Example 2
 An initially uncharged 1-mF capacitor has a current waveform as shown in the
figure. Calculate the voltage across it at 𝑡 = 2 ms and 𝑡 = 5 ms.

Example 3

Under dc conditions, find the energy stored in the capacitor in the circuit
below:

c. Series and Parallel Capacitors

Recall that circuit reduction can be done by combining resistances in series or

parallel. This technique can be extended to series-parallel connections of
capacitors, which are sometimes encountered. We can replace these
capacitors by a single capacitor 𝐶 .

Suppose you have N capacitors connected in parallel same as the one below
Applying KCL to the top node, we get

𝑖 = 𝑖 + 𝑖 + 𝑖 + ⋯𝑖

But recall that 𝑖 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑡. Thus

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑖=𝐶 +𝐶 +𝐶 + ⋯𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
= 𝐶 =𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Wherein

𝐶 = 𝐶 +𝐶 +𝐶 +⋯𝐶

Thus, the equivalent capacitance of N parallel connected capacitors

is the sum of the individual capacitances. (Same as series connected
resistors!)

For series connected capacitances, suppose we have the connection

same as the one below

Applying KVL to the loop, we get

𝑣 = 𝑣 + 𝑣 + 𝑣 + ⋯+ 𝑣

But recall that 𝑣 = ∫ 𝑖(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 + 𝑣 (𝑡 ). Therefore

1 1 1
𝑣= 𝑖(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 + 𝑣 (𝑡 ) + 𝑖(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 + 𝑣 (𝑡 ) + ⋯ + 𝑖(𝜏)𝑑𝜏
𝐶 𝐶 𝐶
+ 𝑣 (𝑡 )
 1 1 1 1
𝑣= + + + ⋯+ 𝑖(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 + 𝑣 (𝑡 ) + 𝑣 (𝑡 ) + ⋯ + 𝑣 (𝑡 )
𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶

1
𝑣= 𝑖(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 + 𝑣(𝑡 )
𝐶

Where

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ⋯+
𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶

Or

𝐶 =𝐶 +𝐶 +𝐶 +⋯+𝐶

Therefore, the equivalent capacitance of series-connected capacitors is

the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual capacitance.
(Same as in parallel connected resistances!)

Example 4

Find the equivalent capacitance seen at the terminals of the circuit below

Example 5

Find the voltages across each of the capacitors in the circuit given below
d. Inductors

An inductor is a passive element that stores energy in its magnetic field.

Inductors find numerous applications in electronic and power systems. They
are used in power supplies, transformers, radios, TV’s, radars and electric
motors.

Any conductor of electric current has inductive properties and may be regarded
as an inductor. But to enhance the inductive properties, a practical inductor is
usually formed into a cylindrical coil with many turns of conducting wire shown
below

An Inductor consists of a coil of conducting wire.

If current flows through the inductor, using the passive sign convention, the
voltage across it is said to be

𝑑𝑖
𝑣=𝐿
𝑑𝑡

Where 𝐿 is the constant of proportionality called the inductance of the inductor.

It is the property whereby an inductor exhibits opposition to the change of
current flowing through it, it is measured in henrys (H). In general, the
inductance of an inductor will depend on its physical dimension and
construction.

Assuming that the inductor is linear, the current-voltage relationship is obtained

from the above equation as

1
𝑑𝑖 = 𝑣 𝑑𝑡
𝐿

Integrating gives

1
𝑖= 𝑣(𝜏)𝑑𝜏
𝐿

Or
 1
𝑖= 𝑣(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 + 𝑖(𝑡 )
𝐿

Where 𝑖(𝑡 ) is the total current for −∞ < 𝑡 < 𝑡 and 𝑖(−∞) = 0. The idea of
making 𝑖(−∞) = 0 is practical and reasonable because there must be a time in
the past when there was no current in the inductor.

To solve for the energy stored on the inductor, recall that the power delivered
is

𝑑𝑖
𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝐿 𝑖
𝑑𝑡

The energy stored is

𝑑𝑖
𝑤= 𝑝(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 = 𝐿 𝑖 𝑑𝜏
𝑑𝜏

1 1
=𝐿 𝑖 𝑑𝑖 = 𝐿𝑖 (𝑡) − 𝐿𝑖 (−∞)
2 2

Since 𝑖(−∞) = 0
1
𝑤 = 𝐿𝑖
2

We should note the following properties of an inductor

1. The voltage across an inductor is zero when the current is constant, thus
an inductor is a short circuit in dc.

2. The current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously. According

to the voltage-current equation of the inductor, a discontinuous change in
current requires an infinite voltage!

3. Like the ideal capacitor, the ideal inductor does not dissipate energy. The
inductor takes power from the circuit when storing energy and delivers
power to the circuit when returning the previously stored energy.

Example 6

If the current through a 1-mH inductor is 𝑖(𝑡) = 90 sin(200𝑡) mA, find the
terminal voltage and the energy stored.

Example 7

The terminal voltage of a 2-H inductor is 𝑣 = 10(1 − 𝑡) V. Find the current

flowing through it at 𝑡 = 4 s and the energy stored in it at 𝑡 = 4 s. Assume
𝑖(0) = 2 A.
 Example 8

Determine 𝑣 , 𝑖 , and the energy stored in the capacitor and inductor in the
circuit given below under dc conditions.

e. Series and parallel inductors

Consider a series connection of N inductors

The inductors have the same current through them, by KVL, we get

𝑣 = 𝑣 + 𝑣 + 𝑣 + ⋯𝑣

Substituting 𝑣 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑖/𝑑𝑡 results in

𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝑣=𝐿 +𝐿 +𝐿 +⋯𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
= (𝐿 + 𝐿 + 𝐿 + ⋯ 𝐿 )
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
= 𝐿 =𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Wherein
 𝐿 = 𝐿 +𝐿 +𝐿 +⋯𝐿

Thus, the equivalent inductance of series connected inductors is the sum of

the individual inductances! (much like resistances in series!)

We now consider a parallel connection of N inductors.

Note that the inductors have the same voltage across them. Using KCL,

𝑖 = 𝑖 + 𝑖 + 𝑖 + ⋯𝑖

But 𝑖 = ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖 (𝑡 ); hence,

1 1 1
𝑖 = 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖 (𝑡 ) + 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖 (𝑡 ) + ⋯ + 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖 (𝑡 )
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿

1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖 (𝑡 ) + 𝑖 (𝑡 ) + ⋯ 𝑖 (𝑡 )
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿

1 1
= 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖 (𝑡 ) = 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖(𝑡 )
𝐿 𝐿

Where

1 1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿

Or

𝐿 = (𝐿 +𝐿 +𝐿 + ⋯+ 𝐿 )

The equivalent inductance of parallel inductors is the reciprocal of the sum of

the reciprocals of the individual inductances. (much like parallel connected
resistances!)
Example 10

Calculate the inductance of the inductive ladder network shown below

Example 11

In the circuit given below, 𝑖 (𝑡) = 3𝑒 A. If 𝑖(0) = 7 A, find: (a) 𝑖 (0); (b) 𝑖 (𝑡)
and 𝑖(𝑡); 𝑣 (𝑡), 𝑣 (𝑡), and 𝑣(𝑡)