Background: Generation Shift Factor

Generation shift factor: 𝐺𝑆𝐹𝑙−𝑘 gives the fraction of a charge in injection

at bus 𝑘 that appears on branch 𝑙.
This concept is very useful in derivations of optimal power flow,
economic dispatch, and unit commitment when transmission line
thermal constraints are considered.
Definition
A Generation Shift Factor has 4 attributes:
A particular line (with reference direction)
A particular bus
Value of the shift factor
A reference bus
The value of the generation shift factor of line 𝑙 with
respect to bus 𝑖 and a corresponding change in
withdrawal at the reference bus
∆flow in line 𝑙 / ∆ injection at bus 𝑖
Simple Example
Suppose there is a generator at bus 𝑖 and a load at the
reference bus
If the load increased by 1 MW and this load was served by
an additional MW of generation (assume no loss) at bus 𝑖,
there would be changes in the transmission line flows
throughout the system
Assume the change in the MW flow on line 𝑙 (in the
reference direction) increased by 0.4 MW
The generation shift factor for this line with respect to the
generator and load location (reference bus) is
∆flow in line 𝑙 / ∆ injection at bus 𝑖 = 0.4 / 1= 0.4
Lecture Objective
Upon completion of this lecture, you will be
able to:
Understand the concept of a generation shift
factor
Given a power system, and a reference bus, be
able to determine a set of shift factors for this
system.
What will we learn in this lecture
Goal: Derive impact of power injections on line
flows!
Derivation of branch flow equations
Now let’s first consider the complex power flow on a branch
I1 a a' Z' a'' I2

Sl
V1 Y'/2 Y'/2 V2

n n

S12 -S21
Complex power transmission
The sending-end power 𝑆12 is equal to the power
consumed by 𝑌 ′ /2 plus the power supplied to the rest of
the network through the terminal 𝑎′ 𝑛.
∗
𝑌′∗ 2
𝑌′∗
2
𝑉1 − 𝑉2
𝑆12 = 𝑉 + 𝑆𝑙 = 𝑉 + 𝑉1 ∙
2 1 2 1 𝑍′
𝑌′∗ 2
𝑉1
2 𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑗𝜃
= 𝑉1 + ∗ − ∗
𝑒 12
2 𝑍′ 𝑍′
 𝑉1 2 𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑗𝜃
𝑆𝑙 = ∗
− ∗
𝑒 12
𝑍′ 𝑍′
Note 𝑍′ is the primitive impedance of the transmission line.
Using assumption 1:

0 ≈ 𝐺𝑖𝑘 ≪ 𝐵𝑖𝑘

Apply this assumption to the complex line flow equation we get:

𝑆𝑙 = 𝑉1 2 𝑗𝐵12 − 𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑗𝐵12 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃12 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃12 )

𝑃𝑙 = 𝑉1 𝑉2 𝐵12 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃12 ≈ 𝑉1 𝑉2 𝐵12 (𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )

Using assumption 2
Using assumption 3:
𝑃𝑙 ≈ 𝐵12 (𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )

Now, we have the line flow equation:

𝑃𝑙 = 𝑃𝑖𝑗 = 𝐵𝑖𝑗 (𝜃𝑖 − 𝜃𝑗 )

Derivation of branch flow equations in matrix form
In matrix form, we have:
𝑃𝐵 = (𝐷 × 𝐴) × 𝜃,

where 𝑃𝐵 is the vector of branch flows. It has dimension of

𝐿 × 1. 𝐿 is number of branches in the system.

𝐷 is a 𝐿 × 𝐿 matrix having non diagonal elements of zeros;

the diagonal elements in position row 𝑘, column 𝑘 contains
the negatives of the susceptances of the 𝑘 𝑡ℎ branch
𝑏𝑖𝑗 : branch susceptances
𝑦𝑖𝑗 = 𝑗𝑏𝑖𝑗 = −𝑌𝑖𝑗 = −𝑗𝐵𝑖𝑗
𝑏𝑖𝑗 = −𝐵𝑖𝑗

𝐴 is the 𝐿 × (𝑁 − 1) node-arc incidence matrix

Example: 3-bus system

Node 1
Incidence Matrix

Branch 1 Branch 3 Node

① ②
Branch ① 1 −1
(Reference Bus)
Branch 2 Node 3 𝐴=② 0 1
Node 2 ③ −1 0
Directed Graph

−𝑏12 𝐵12
𝐷= −𝑏23 = 𝐵23
−𝑏31 𝐵31
Example: 3-bus system
Derivation of Branch Flow Equations

𝐵12 1 −1 𝐵12 −𝐵12

𝐷×𝐴= 𝐵23 0 1 = 0 𝐵23
𝐵31 −1 0 −𝐵31 0

𝐵12 −𝐵12 𝐵12 (𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )

𝜃1
𝑃𝐵 = 𝐷 × 𝐴 × 𝜃 = 0 𝐵23 = 𝐵23 𝜃2
𝜃2
−𝐵31 0 −𝐵31 𝜃1

𝑃12 𝐵12 (𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )

Bus 3 is the reference bus
𝑃23 = 𝐵23 (𝜃2 −0)
𝜃3 = 0
𝑃31 𝐵31 (0 − 𝜃1 )
Derive impact of power injections on line flows!
From DC Load Flow, we have:
𝜃 = (𝐵′)−1 𝑃

Plug it into 𝑃𝐵 = 𝐷 × 𝐴 × 𝜃:
𝑃𝐵 = 𝐷 × 𝐴 × (𝐵′)−1 × 𝑃
𝐿×1 𝐿×𝐿 𝐿 × (𝑁 − 1) (𝑁 − 1) × (𝑁 − 1) (𝑁 − 1) × 1

Remember 𝐵′ is the DC power flow matrix of dim (𝑁 − 1) ×

(𝑁 − 1) obtained from 𝑌𝑏𝑢𝑠 . 𝑃 is the vector of nodal
injections for buses 2, ⋯ , 𝑁.
The above expression calculates branch flows on all lines
given the injection at all buses except the swing bus.
Derivation of GSFs
GSF: What we want is the fraction of change in flow on all lines given a
change in injection at one bus.
𝑃2 𝑃2° ∆𝑃2
𝑃3 𝑃3° ∆𝑃3
⋮ ⋮
∆𝑃 = − ⋮° = = 𝑃 − 𝑃°
𝑃𝑘 𝑃𝑘 ∆𝑃𝑘
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑃𝑁 𝑃𝑁° ∆𝑃𝑁

Therefore, the fraction change in flow on branches can be derived as

∆𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝐵 − 𝑃𝐵°

= 𝐷 × 𝐴 (𝐵′)−1 𝑃 − 𝐷 × 𝐴 (𝐵′)−1 𝑃°

= 𝐷 × 𝐴 𝐵′ −1
(𝑃 − 𝑃° )

= 𝐷 × 𝐴 𝐵′ −1 ∆𝑃
Final Form of GSFs
Now let the ∆𝑃 vector be all zeros except for the element corresponding to
the 𝑘th bus and assign this bus an injection change of 1. Then we have:
∆𝑃2 0 ∆𝑃𝐵1 0 𝐺𝑆𝐹1−𝑘
∆𝑃3 0 ∆𝑃𝐵2 0 𝐺𝑆𝐹2−𝑘
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
∆𝑃 = = , ∆𝑃𝐵 = = 𝐷 × 𝐴 𝐵′ −1 =
∆𝑃𝑘 1 ∆𝑃𝐵𝑏 1 𝐺𝑆𝐹𝑏−𝑘
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
∆𝑃𝑁 0 ∆𝑃𝐵𝐿 0 𝐺𝑆𝐹𝐿−𝑘

Question: Does the above equation imply that the injection is changed
at only one bus? Explain.

No, there is a change of injection at reference bus of −1. (This is

needed to make sure power balance constraint is enforced.)
What changes DC GSFs?
Shift factors change when
Topology changes
Line impedance changes
Shift factors do not change if the injection/withdraw amount
increases for any set of locations
No operating point necessary
No reactive power flow modeled

No transmission losses modeled

Special properties of DC GSFs
Linear superposition of flows holds
This is because the DC network is a linear network
For example, for a given line 𝑙
Injection of 1 MW at bus A and withdrawal of 1 MW at reference bus
Assume shift factor on line 𝑙 in the reference direction = 30%

The flow on line 𝑙 is 1 MW * 30% = 0.3 MW

Remove injection at Bus A and withdrawal at reference Bus…

Special properties of DC GSFs
… Injection of 1 MW at bus B and withdrawal of 1 MW at
reference bus
Assume shift factor on line 𝑙 in the reference direction = 40%

The flow on line 𝑙 is 1 MW * 40% = 0.4 MW

Apply both sets simultaneously

Inject 1 MW at bus A and inject 1 MW at bus B
Withdrawal 2 MW (1+1) from the reference bus
Flow on line 𝑙 in the reference direction = ? (0.3 + 0.4 = 0.7 MW)
Linear superposition
Inject of 1 MW at bus A and withdrawal of 1 MW at reference
bus
Linear superposition
Inject of 1 MW at bus B and withdrawal of 1 MW at reference
bus
Linear superposition
Inject of 1 MW at bus A and 1 MW at bus B and withdrawal of
2 MW at reference bus
Distributed Slack Bus
The above equation shows how to compute generation shift
factor for the case when a single specified slack bus
correspond to bus 1.
However, there is no “slack bus” in actual power systems.
The single slack bus model may significantly distort
computed power flows. Therefore, we would like to explore
distributed slack bus model.
Now let’s derive GSFs with distributed slack bus. The nodal
injection vector ∆𝑃 should correspond to the percentage of
desired compensation for each bus.
Derivation of GSF with Distributed Slack Bus
How to determine the percentage of desired compensation
for each bus?
∆𝑃𝐵1 𝐺𝑆𝐹1−𝑘 𝐶2
∆𝑃𝐵2 𝐺𝑆𝐹2−𝑘 𝐶3
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
∆𝑃𝐵 = = = 𝐷 × 𝐴 𝐵′ −1
∆𝑃𝐵𝑏 𝐺𝑆𝐹𝑏−𝑘 1
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
∆𝑃𝐵𝐿 𝐺𝑆𝐹𝐿−𝑘 𝐶𝑁
𝑁 𝑁

𝐶1 = − 𝐶𝑖 = −(1 + 𝐶𝑖 )
𝑖=2 𝑖=2
𝑖≠𝑘
Derivation of GSF with Distributed Slack Bus
If the slack is distributed equally to all buses:
𝑁
1
1=− 𝐶𝑖 , 𝐶𝑖 = − , ∀𝑖 𝑖 ≠ 𝑘
𝑖=1
𝑁−1
𝑖≠𝑘

Question: does GSF change when the definition of slack

bus changes?
In practical electricity markets, a distributed load slack bus
is used unless the ED problem can not be solved.
Usually, weights are applied to load buses by total load
consumption level at each node.
5-bus Example: 1 2 4 5

T1 T2
3

From Bus To Bus R (p.u.) X (p.u.) B (p.u)

1 2 0.004 0.0533 0
2 3 0.02 0.25 0.22
3 4 0.02 0.25 0.22
2 4 0.01 0.15 0.11
4 5 0.006 0.08 0

Injection at node 3
Case 1: single slack bus 5,
Case 2: distributed slack bus 1, 2, 4, and 5
Do we have the same generation shift factors?