▪ The single-subscript notation Va specifies the voltage at

point a with respect to ground (zero volts). If the voltage

is less than zero volts, a negative sign must be associated
with the magnitude of Va.

Defining the use of single-subscript

notation for voltage levels.
▪ The fact that voltage is across a variable and exists between two points
has resulted in a double-subscript notation that defines the first
subscript as the higher potential.
▪ The double-subscript notation Vab specifies point a as the higher potential. If this is
not the case, a negative sign must be associated with the magnitude of Vab.

Defining the sign for double-subscript notation.

▪ The double-subscript notation Vab specifies point a as the
higher potential than point b.
▪ If this is not the case, a negative sign must be associated with
the magnitude of Vab.
▪ In other words, the voltage Vab is the voltage at point a with
respect to point b.
▪ A particularly useful relationship can now be established that
has extensive applications in the analysis of electronic
circuits.
▪ For the above notational standards, the following relationship
exists:
Vab = Va − Vb = 16V − 20V = −4V Vab = Va − Vb
Va = Vab + Vb = 5V + 4V = 9V
 𝒗𝒂𝒏 = 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕
𝒊𝒂𝒏 = 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 − 𝜽)

𝒑𝒕 = 𝒗𝒂𝒏 𝒊𝒂𝒏
= 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕 − 𝜽)

In DC circuit,
𝑽𝟐
P=VI= 𝑹 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹

In AC circuit,
𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰𝒄𝒐𝒔∅
P= VI (for Purely resistive)
P= 0 (for purely inductive)
P= 0 (for purely capacitive)
Two ideal voltage sources designated as
machines 1 and 2 are connected, as shown in
the figure. If E1 = 100∟ 30º V, and Z= 0+j5 Ω,
determine (a) whether each machine is
generating or consuming real power and the
amount, (b) whether each machine is receiving
or supplying reactive power and the amount,
and (c) the P and Q absorbed by the impedance.
 𝐸1 −𝐸2 100−100∟30°
𝐼= = = −10 − 𝑗2.68 A
𝑍 𝑗5
Current entering box-1= -I
Current entering box-2= I
𝑆1 = 𝐸1 (−𝐼1 )∗ = 1000 − 𝑗268 𝑉𝐴
𝑆2 = 𝐸2 (𝐼1 )∗ = −1000 − 𝑗268 𝑉𝐴
Reactive power absorbed in the series impedance is
𝐼2 𝑋 = 10.352 𝑥5 = 536 𝑉𝐴𝑅
Machine 1:
P1 is positive and Q1 is negative, therefore machine consumes energy at the
rate of 1000W and supplies reactive power of 268 VAR.
Machine 2:
P2 is negative and Q2 is negative, therefore machine generates energy at the
rate of 1000W and supplies and supplies reactive power of 268 VAR
BALANCED 3-PHASE CIRCUITS
a-Operator
A balanced Y-connected load of 8+j6 Ω per phase connected to a line current, power
factor, power and total volt-amp. balanced 3-phase 400 V supply. Find the line
current, power factor, power and total volt-amp.

Solution:
𝒁𝒑 = 𝟖 + 𝒋𝟔 = 𝟏𝟎
𝑽𝑳 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝑽
𝑽𝑳
𝑽𝒑 = = 𝟐𝟑𝟏 𝑽
𝟑
𝑽𝒑 𝟐𝟑𝟏
𝑰𝒑 = = = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟏 𝑨
𝒁𝒑 𝟏𝟎
𝑰𝑳 = 𝑰𝒑 = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟏 𝑨
𝑹 𝟖
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅ = = = 𝟎. 𝟖
𝒁 𝟏𝟎
𝑷 = 𝟑𝑽𝑳 𝑰𝑳 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅ = 𝟑 × 𝟒𝟎𝟎 × 𝟐𝟑. 𝟏 × 𝟎. 𝟖 = 𝟏𝟐𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝑾
𝑸 = 𝟑𝑽𝑳 𝑰𝑳 𝒔𝒊𝒏∅ = 𝟑 × 𝟒𝟎𝟎 × 𝟐𝟑. 𝟏 × 𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟖𝟐 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑽𝑨
A balanced 3-phase load connected I star consists of (6+j8) Ω impedance in each
phase. It is connected to a three-phase supply of 400 V, 50 Hz. Find (i) phase
current (ii) line current (iii) per phase power and (iv) total power.
▪ The terminal voltage of a Y-connected load consisting of three equal
impedances of 20∟𝟑𝟎° is 4.4 k V line to line . The impedance of each of the
three lines connecting the load to a bus at a substation is ZL = l .4 ∟75 °.
Find the line-to-line voltage at the substation bus.