PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Evaluations . . .

[1]

Quiz – 01: 10 Marks (tentatively on 06 Dec 2022: 8:00am to 8:55 am)

Mid-SEM: 30 Marks (According the academic calendar)
Quiz – 02: 10 Marks (tentatively on 31 Jan 2023: 8:00am to 8:55 am)
END-SEM: 50 Marks (According the academic calendar)
PH 101: PHYSICS 1 [2]

Lecture 01
Goal: Beyond Newtonian mechanics
Three laws of motion: Isaac Newton: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia
Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy): 1687

Introduction of new concepts of mechanics

beyond Newton’s law:
Lagrangian and Hamiltonian
equations of dynamics
Italian-French mathematician and astronomer Irish mathematician and astronomer
Joseph-Louis Lagrange Sir William Rowan Hamilton,
Mécanique analytique: 1788 Reformulation of Lagragian: 1833
 [3]
PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Goal: Beyond Newtonian mechanics
Why is this important?
An example:
Describing the motion of a pendulum.
 In Newtonian mechanics, we start by drawing a
diagram with multiple arrows for all the forces which
are acting on the pendulum.
 We then find how the pendulum is moving by using
Newton’s second law: 𝐹Ԧ = 𝑚𝑎Ԧ
 More generally, we use Newton’s three laws as
fundamental laws of nature and derive everything else
from there. It is centered around forces, since these are
ultimately used to figure out the trajectories.

 Lagrangian mechanics therefore is centered around energies.

Forces are no longer needed to determine the motion of
objects.
𝑔
𝜃ሷ + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0
𝐿
 [4]
PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Layout of the mechanics part
 Mathematical concepts of partial differentiation and
coordinate systems.
 Constraint, degree’s of freedom and generalized coordinates.

 Challenges with unknown nature of constraint forces in

Newtonian Mechanics.
 D’Alembert’s Principle of virtual work to remove the
constrain forces from analysis.

 Lagrange’s equation: An alternative to Newton’s law.

 Variational method and Lagrange's equation from

variational principle.
 Hamiltonian equations of motion
 [5]
PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Mathematical Concepts

Let’s start with basic

mathematical concepts
Key to understand classical mechanics

 Mathematical concepts of partial differentiation and

coordinate systems.
 [6]
PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Mathematical Concepts
Total Differential: Function of one variable
𝑮𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏: 𝒚 = 𝒇 𝒙 𝐢𝐬 𝐚 𝐟𝐮𝐧𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐧𝐞 𝐯𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐛𝐥𝐞 𝒙
Slope 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑦 B
𝑓′ 𝑥 = = lim
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 𝑓 𝑥 C
= lim (𝑥, 𝑦) ∆𝑦
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥
∆𝑥
A
𝒅𝒚
′
𝒅𝒚 = 𝒇 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒅𝒙 𝑥
𝒅𝒙

 Infinitesimal change of 𝑦 around certain point (𝑥)

= (rate of change of 𝑦 around the point)×(magnitude of change in 𝑥 )

 At stationary points (maxima or minima) which are A, B and C

𝑑𝑦 = 0 even if 𝑥 is changed infinitesimally.
At these points 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 0.
 [7]
PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Mathematical Concepts
Total Differential: Examples

Motion in 1D:
Particle moving in along a line (say 𝑥 −direction).
𝑥 𝑡 , the instantaneous position is a function of time.
𝑑𝑥
Then, Velocity 𝑣 𝑥 = 𝑥ሶ =
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑣 𝑑 2𝑥
Similarly, Acceleration 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑣ሶ = = = 𝑥ሷ
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
 [8]
PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Mathematical Concepts
Total Differential: Examples
Potential energy is a function of position (spring elongation) 𝑈 𝑥

❑ Increase in U(x) due to displacement 𝑑𝑥;

❑ Work done against the restoring force:

−𝐹𝑥 𝑑𝑥. (minus sign for work against the force)

❑ Conservation of energy:
Increase of potential energy = work done

𝑑𝑈
Thus, 𝐹𝑥 = −
𝑑𝑥
 [9]
PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Mathematical Concepts
Total Differential: Examples
Potential energy in 1 D: Arbitrary shape

𝑈(𝑥)
Potential energy of arbitrary shape

𝑥
𝑑𝑈
Restoring force, 𝐹𝑥 = − is different at different point
𝑑𝑥
 [10]
PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Mathematical Concepts
Partial Differential: Function with more than one variable
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) depends on two independent variables 𝑥 and 𝑦.
general direction
Example: Height (𝑓) of a hill as function of position
coordinates 𝑥, 𝑦 . 𝑦-direction

𝑥-direction
 The rate of change of height (slope) in the ‘x’
direction, when 𝒚 remains constant, is denoted by
𝜕𝑓 𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥, 𝒚 − 𝑓(𝑥, 𝒚)
= lim
𝜕𝑥 𝒚
∆𝑥⟶0 ∆𝑥

 The rate of change of height (slope) in the ‘y’ direction,

when 𝒙 remains constant is denoted by

𝜕𝑓 𝑓 𝒙, 𝑦 + ∆𝑦 − 𝑓(𝒙, 𝑦)
= lim
𝜕𝑦 𝒙
∆𝑦⟶0 ∆𝑦
 [11]
PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Mathematical Concepts
Partial Differential: Function with more than one variable
❑ How much height will change if I start walking in the ‘𝑥’
direction by ‘𝑑𝑥’ [keeping ‘𝑦’ fixed]?
𝜕𝑓
𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑦-direction
𝜕𝑥
= 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ×
𝑥-direction
𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑥

❑ Similarly, for ‘y’ direction by ‘dy’ [keeping ‘x’ fixed]

𝜕𝑓
𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑦

❑ Now, how much height will change if I go in any arbitrary

direction where ‘𝑥’ changes by ‘𝑑𝑥’ and ‘𝑦’ changes by ‘𝑑𝑦’
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑑𝑓 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 = [𝑑𝑓]𝑑𝑥+[𝑑𝑓]𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
 Generalizing for a function, which depends on several variables 𝑓 𝑥1, 𝑥2, 𝑥3 … 𝑥𝑛
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑑𝑓 = 𝑑𝑥1 + 𝑑𝑥2 … … + 𝑑𝑥𝑛 = ෍ 𝑑𝑥𝑖
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥𝑛 𝜕𝑥𝑖
𝑖
 [12]
PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Mathematical Concepts
Partial Differential: Function with more than one variable
A proof
 For a function 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 , if x changes by x and y changes by y,
then the total change in f
∆𝑓 = 𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥, 𝑦 + ∆𝑦 − 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦
∆𝑓 = 𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥, 𝑦 + ∆𝑦 − 𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥, 𝑦 − 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦

𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥, 𝑦 + ∆𝑦 − 𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥, 𝑦 𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥, 𝑦 − 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦

∆𝑓 = ∆𝑦 + ∆𝑥
∆𝑦 ∆𝑥
∆𝑥, ∆𝑦 → 0

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑑𝑓 = 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
 [13]
PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Mathematical Concepts
Partial Differential: Function of the function
 Consider a function 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 and further x (u, v) & y (u, v).
We make a change in u by ∆u which causes the changes in x by x and y by y
then the total change in f
∆𝑓 = 𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥, 𝑦 + ∆𝑦 − 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦

∆𝑓 = 𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥, 𝑦 + ∆𝑦 − 𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥, 𝑦 − 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦

∆𝑓 𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥, 𝑦 + ∆𝑦 − 𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥, 𝑦 ∆𝑦 𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥, 𝑦 − 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 ∆𝑥

= +
∆𝑢 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑢 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑢
If x (u, v) & y (u, v) are continuous functions then if ∆u → 0 ⇒ ∆𝑥, ∆𝑦 → 0
∆𝑓 𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥, 𝑦 + ∆𝑦 − 𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥, 𝑦 ∆𝑦
lim = lim lim
∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢 ∆𝑦→0 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢

𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥, 𝑦 − 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 ∆𝑥
+ lim lim
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑦
= + Similarly = +
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑣
 [14]
PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Mathematical Concepts
Reciprocity relation
Taking a function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦), one can also express x as a function of y and f. If 𝑧 = 𝑥 2𝑦
You can also
Similarly, express y as a function of x and f. 1Τ
𝑧 2
write 𝑥 =
To emphasize that x, y, f are all in the same footing. Replace f with z. 𝑦
Or
𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑥2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝜕𝑦 𝑧
𝑑𝑦 + 𝜕𝑧 𝑦
𝑑z [if you express 𝑥(𝑦, 𝑧)]

𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑧 [if you express y(𝑥, 𝑧)]
𝜕𝑥 𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝑥

𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Substituting dy in dx: 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑦 𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝑦

 If 𝑧 remain constant, 𝑑𝑧 = 0,
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑦 𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝑦

𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 −𝟏
 So we obtain reciprocity relation 𝜕𝑦 𝑧
= 𝜕𝑥
𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 −1
For simplification of writing, we use =
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
 [15]
PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Mathematical Concepts
Differentiation of function of functions
Until now, we considered the differentiation of a function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) W.R.T. x, y.

Now, let us consider a case where x & y are function of another variables, say u & v.

(a) Compute 𝜕𝑓/𝜕𝑢 & 𝜕𝑓/𝜕𝑣 using chain rule and differentials? Compare?
Example: 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 and 𝑥 = 𝑢2 − 𝑣 2 and 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑣.

[Note, f is Explicit function of x & y and implicit function of u & v].

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑦
(a) Total differential df (b) 𝜕𝑢 = 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑢 + 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑢 (b) 𝜕𝑣 = 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑣 + 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑣
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝒅𝒇 = 𝒅𝒙 + 𝒅𝒚 = 2𝑥2𝑢 + 2𝑦𝑣 = 2𝑥(−2𝑣) + 2𝑦𝑢
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝜕𝑓
𝒅𝒇 = 2𝑥𝒅𝒙 + 2𝑦𝒅𝒚 𝜕𝑓 = 2𝑢𝑦 − 4𝑣𝑥
𝜕𝑣
= 4𝑢𝑥 + 2𝑣𝑦
𝜕𝑢

𝒅𝒇 = 2𝑥 𝟐𝒖𝒅𝒖 − 𝟐𝒗𝒅𝒗 + 2𝑦 𝒗𝒅𝒖 + 𝒖𝒅𝒗

𝑥 = 𝑢2 − 𝑣 2
𝒅𝒙 = 2𝑢𝑑𝑢 − 2𝑣𝑑𝑣 𝒅𝒇 = 4𝑥𝑢𝑑𝑢 − 4𝑥𝑣𝑑𝑣 + 2𝑦𝑣𝑑𝑢 + 2𝑦𝑢𝑑𝑣
𝑦 = 𝑢𝑣. 𝒅𝒚 = 𝑣𝑑𝑢 + 𝑢𝑑𝑣 𝒅𝒇 = 4𝑢𝑥 + 2𝑣𝑦 𝑑𝑢 + 2𝑢𝑦 − 4𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑣
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑑𝑓 = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑑𝑣
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
 [16]
PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Mathematical Concepts
Differentiation of function of functions
You take this example: 𝑓 = 𝑥𝑦 + ln 𝑦 2
[f is Explicit function of x, y and implicit function of u], where 𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝑢 and 𝑦 =
𝑎 sin 𝑢.

(a) Write the total differential df in terms of dx and dy.

(b) Compute d𝑓/𝑑𝑢 using chain rule and differentials? Compare?

𝑑𝑓
= 𝑎 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑢 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑢 + 2 cot 𝑢
𝑑𝑢
 [17]
PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Mathematical Concepts
Differentiation of function of functions
 Generalization for a function depends on several variables 𝑓(𝑥1, 𝑥2, 𝑥3…. 𝑥𝑛) and the
variables are function of another set of variables, i.e., 𝑥𝑖 (𝑢1, 𝑢2, …. 𝑢𝑛 ).
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑑𝑓 = 𝑑𝑥1 + 𝑑𝑥2 + ….+ 𝑑𝑥𝑛 = ෍ 𝑑𝑥𝑖
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥𝑛 𝜕𝑥𝑖

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑥𝑛 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑥𝑖

= + +⋯+ = ෍
𝜕𝑢1 𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑢1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑢1 𝜕𝑥𝑛 𝜕𝑢1 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑢1
 [18]
PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Mathematical Concepts
Use of Chain rule
If a set of coordinates xi is function of another set of coordinates qj and time (t).
𝜕 𝑥ሶ 𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑖
Prove that
𝜕 𝑞ሶ 𝑗
= 𝜕𝑞 [Cancellation of dots]; [Where 𝑥ሶ 𝑖 and 𝑞ሶ 𝑗 are time derivatives
𝑗
of 𝑥𝑖 and 𝑞𝑗 respectively.

𝑮𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 , 𝒙𝒊 = 𝒙𝒊 (𝒒𝟏, 𝒒𝟐, …, 𝒒𝒏 , 𝐭)

𝒅𝒙𝒊 𝝏𝒙𝒊 𝒅𝒒𝟏 𝝏𝒙𝒊 𝒅𝒒𝟐 𝝏𝒙𝒊 𝒅𝒒𝒏 𝝏𝒙𝒊 𝒅𝒕

𝒙ሶ 𝒊 = = + +⋯+ +
𝒅𝒕 𝝏𝒒𝟏 𝒅𝒕 𝝏𝒒𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝝏𝒒𝒏 𝒅𝒕 𝝏𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝝏𝒙𝒊 𝝏𝒙𝒊 𝝏𝒙𝒊 𝝏𝒙𝒊
𝒙ሶ 𝒊 = 𝒒ሶ + 𝒒ሶ + ⋯ 𝒒ሶ +
𝝏𝒒𝟏 𝟏 𝝏𝒒𝟐 𝟐 𝝏𝒒𝒏 𝒏 𝝏𝒕

𝝏𝒙ሶ 𝒊 𝝏𝒙𝒊 Thus, in general,

=
𝝏𝒒ሶ 𝟏 𝝏𝒒𝟏
 [19]
PH 101: PHYSICS 1 Mathematical Concepts
Summary of Partial Differential
 If a function ‘f’ depends on several variables, i.e., 𝑓(𝑥1, 𝑥2, 𝑥3 … 𝑥𝑛 ) [explicate dependence]
then
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑑𝑓 = 𝑑𝑥1 + 𝑑𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑥𝑛 = ෍ 𝑑𝑥𝑖
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥𝑛 𝜕𝑥𝑖

 Reciprocity relation:
−𝟏
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
=
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝑧 𝑧

 If a function depends on several variables 𝑓(𝑥1, 𝑥2, 𝑥3 … 𝑥𝑛 ) and the variables are functions
of another set of variables, i.e., 𝑥𝑖 (𝑢1, 𝑢2, … 𝑢𝑛 )
𝑛
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑥𝑖
= ෍
𝜕𝑢𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑢𝑗
1
PH 101: PHYSICS 1 [20]