Chapter 2: Heat Conduction

Equation
 OVERVIEW
𝑑𝑇
𝑞 𝑥 =− 𝑘𝐴
• Steady-state, one-dimensional conduction in simple geometries (Covered) 𝑑𝑥
• Deeper understanding of Fourier’s law
• Generalized form of the steady-state heat conduction rate equation in 3D

• Development of heat equation

• governs the temperature distribution in a medium (With regards to Space & time)

• heat equation with regards to Cartesian, Cylindrical and Spherical Co-ordinate systems

• Solution to Heat equation

• By introducing boundary & Initial conditions

• Provides knowledge of the temperature distribution

• Determination of heat flux using temperature distribution

 Steady versus Transient Heat Transfer
Steady implies no change with time at any point
within the medium
Temperature or heat flux remains unchanged
with time during steady heat transfer through a
medium at any location, although both quantities
may vary from one location to another
Example: Heat transfer through the walls of a
house will be steady when conditions inside the
house and the outdoors remain constant for
several hours
Transient implies variation with time or time
dependence
Example: Cooling of an apple in a refrigerator
 Heat Conduction Equation 1D

1. Based on experimental evidences

qx variation with temperature gradient,

material thickness (Δx) and cross-sectional
area A.

2. Defines thermal
conductivity
 Lateral surfaces are insulated. qx depends on nature of materials.
 End are isothermal surfaces (T >T )
1 2

 Heat flow along x-direction

 Heat Conduction Equation 3D
Generalized form of the conduction rate equation

∇ is a 3D del operator

3. Direction of heat flux

Heat flux per unit area (qn): It is vector quantity with direction normal to isothermal surface/normal to the
cross-sectional area (A)

4. Applies to all matters (solid, liquid and

gas)
Heat flux per unit area in Cartesian coordinates:
 Heat Equation Derivation
To compute the temperature distribution in the medium resulting from the boundary conditions.

Consider a differential control volume in Cartesian coordinates with no bulk motion.

 Infinity small differential control volume, dx dy dz

 Conduction heat transfer at the control surfaces, in case of
temperature gradient.
 The conduction heat rates at control surfaces:
yz qx
xz qy
xy qz
 Heat Equation Derivation
The conduction heat rates at opposite sides can be determined using Taylor series approximation
𝑓 ( 𝑥 )=𝑞 𝑥 𝑓 ′ ( 𝑥) 𝜕 𝑞𝑥
𝑓 ( 𝑎) = 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) + ( 𝑎 − 𝑥) 𝑓 ( 𝑥 +𝑑𝑥 ) =𝑞 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥
𝑓 ( 𝑎 ) =? ? 𝑤h𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎=𝑥 +𝑑𝑥 1! 𝜕𝑥

𝜕 𝑞𝑥 𝜕𝑞𝑦 𝜕 𝑞𝑧
𝑞 𝑥+𝑑𝑥 =𝑞 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 𝑞 𝑦 +𝑑𝑦 =𝑞 𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦 𝑞 𝑧 +𝑑𝑧 =𝑞 𝑧 + 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Thermal energy generation due to an energy source: Manifestation

of energy conversion process
Positive (source) if thermal energy is generated
Negative (sink) if thermal energy is consumed

The energy source term associated with energy generation

𝐸˙ 𝑔 =𝑞˙ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
Where is the rate at which energy is generated per unit volume.
 Heat Equation Derivation
Energy Storage Term
Represents the rate of change of thermal energy stored in the matter in the absence of phase change

( ) (
˙𝐸 𝑠𝑡 =𝜌 𝑘𝑔 ×𝑐 𝑝
𝑚
3
𝑘𝑔
𝐽
. 𝐾
×
𝜕 𝑡)
𝜕𝑇 𝐾
𝑠 ( )
( 3
)
× 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝑚 = 𝑝 𝑐𝑝
𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑡
( 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 )[𝐽
𝑠 ] ( )

𝜕𝑇 is the time rate of change of the sensible (thermal)

𝑝𝑐 𝑝
𝜕 𝑡 energy of the medium per unit volume (W/m ) 3
 Heat Equation Derivation
Differential form of first law of thermodynamics (energy balance on differential control
volume )

˙ 𝑖𝑛 + 𝐸
𝐸 ˙ 𝑔−𝐸
˙ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐸
˙ 𝑠𝑡
Substituting the
values:

[
( 𝑞 𝑥 +𝑞 𝑦 +𝑞 𝑧 ) + ( 𝑞˙ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 ) − ( 𝑞 𝑥+𝑑𝑥 +𝑞 𝑦 +𝑑𝑦 +𝑞 𝑧 +𝑑𝑧 )= 𝑝 𝑐 𝑝
𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑡 ]
( 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 )

𝑞𝑥
𝑥
𝑑𝑥  +
𝜕𝑞𝑦
𝜕𝑦
𝑑𝑦 +
𝜕 𝑞𝑧
𝜕𝑧
𝑑𝑧 + ( 𝑞 )
˙ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 ) = 𝑝 𝑐 𝑝
𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑡 [
( 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 ) ]
𝜕 𝑞𝑥 𝜕𝑞𝑦 𝜕 𝑞𝑧
𝑞 𝑥+𝑑𝑥 =𝑞 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 𝑞 𝑦 +𝑑𝑦 =𝑞 𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦 𝑞 𝑧 +𝑑𝑧 =𝑞 𝑧 + 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 Heat Equation Derivation
−
𝜕 𝑞𝑥
𝜕𝑥 (𝑑𝑥  +
𝜕𝑞𝑦
𝜕𝑦
𝑑𝑦 +
𝜕 𝑞𝑧
𝜕𝑧
𝑑𝑧 + ( 𝑞 )
˙ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 ) = 𝑝 𝑐 𝑝
𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑡
( 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 ) [ ]
The conduction heat rates:
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝑞 𝑥 =−𝑘𝐴 =−𝑘𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝑞 𝑦 =−𝑘𝐴 =−𝑘𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 𝑞 𝑧 =−𝑘𝐴 =−𝑘𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧

−
( (
𝜕
𝜕𝑥
− 𝑘𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑥
𝑑𝑥  + )𝜕
𝜕𝑦
− 𝑘𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑦 (
𝑑𝑦 +
𝜕
𝜕𝑧
− 𝑘𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦)𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑧 (
𝑑𝑧 + ( 𝑞˙ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 )= 𝑝 𝑐 𝑝) )
𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑡
( 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 ) [ ]
−
( (
𝜕
𝜕𝑥
−𝑘
𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧+
𝜕
𝜕𝑦
−𝑘
𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑦 (
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧+
𝜕
𝜕𝑧
−𝑘)𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑧
( ˙
( ) )
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑞 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = 𝑝 𝑐 𝑝
𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑡 )
( 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 ) [ ]
General form of heat diffusion equation becomes
( 𝜕 𝑥 ( 𝑘 𝜕 𝑥 )+ 𝜕 𝑦 (𝑘 𝜕 𝑦 )+ 𝜕 𝑧 (𝑘 𝜕 𝑧 ))+ 𝑞 =[𝑝 𝑐 𝜕 𝑡 ]
𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
( ˙ )
𝜕𝑇
𝑝

Above equation states that at any point in the medium, the net rate of energy transfer by conduction into unit volume plus the
volumetric rate of thermal energy generation must equal the rate of change of thermal energy stored within the volume
 Simplified forms of heat diffusion equation

General form of heat diffusion equation becomes

( ( ) ( ) ( )) [
𝜕
𝑘
𝜕𝑇
+
𝜕
𝑘
𝜕𝑇
+
𝜕
𝑘
𝜕 𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕 𝑦 𝜕 𝑦 𝜕 𝑧 𝜕 𝑧
𝜕𝑇
+ ( 𝑞˙ ) = 𝑝 𝑐𝑝
𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑡 ]
For constant thermal conductivity (Fourier-Biot
equation)

( )( ) [ ]
2 2 2
𝜕 𝑇 𝜕 𝑇 𝜕 𝑇 ˙
𝑞 1 𝜕𝑇 𝑘
2
+ 2
+ 2
+ = 𝑤 h𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛼=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑘 𝛼 𝜕𝑡 𝜌 𝑐𝑝
Under steady-state condition (Poisson equation)

( )( )
2 2 2
𝜕 𝑇 𝜕 𝑇 𝜕 𝑇 ˙
𝑞 𝜕𝑇
+ + + =0 𝑤h𝑒𝑟𝑒 =0
𝜕𝑥
2
𝜕𝑦
2
𝜕𝑧
2
𝑘 𝜕𝑡

For one-dimensional conduction with no heat generation, the above equation becomes

𝑑
𝑑𝑥 ( 𝑘
𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝑥 ) =0
 Heat diffusion Equation: Cylindrical Co-ordinates
General form of heat flux vector in cylindrical
coordinates is

r, phi (Ø), z are radial, circumferential and

axial directions of cylindrical coordinates

𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑘 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝑞𝑟 =− 𝑘𝐴 =− 𝑘(𝑟𝑑 ∅ 𝑑𝑧) 𝑞 ∅=− 𝑘𝐴 =− (𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑧) 𝑞 𝑧 =−𝑘𝐴 =−𝑘(𝑟𝑑 ∅ 𝑑𝑟 )
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟𝜕∅ 𝑟 𝜕∅ 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧

After application of energy balance to deferential control volume, general form of heat equation in cylindrical
coordinates.

(Try it yourself)
 Heat diffusion Equation: Spherical Coordinates
General form of heat flux vector in spherical
coordinates is

r, phi (Ø), theta (θ) are radial, azimuthal and

polar directions in spherical coordinates
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
=− 𝑘 ( 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑 ∅ 𝑑 𝜃 )
2
𝑞𝑟 =− 𝑘𝐴
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟

𝜕𝑇 𝑘 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑘 𝜕𝑇
𝑞 ∅=− 𝑘𝐴 =− (𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑 𝜃) 𝑞 𝜃=− 𝑘𝐴 =− (𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟𝑑 ∅)
𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕 ∅ 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕∅ 𝑟𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝜃

After application of energy balance to deferential control volume, general form of heat equation in spherical
coordinates

(Try it yourself)
 Boundary and Initial Conditions

Heat Flux and Temperature Distribution in a medium

depend on the conditions at the surfaces

Description of a Heat Transfer problem is incomplete

without a full description of thermal boundary
conditions
 Boundary and Initial Conditions
Boundary Conditions T(°C) 𝑑2 𝑇
2
=0
Heat equation is second order in spatial coordinates 𝑑𝑥

𝑇 ( 𝑥 )=𝐶 1 𝑥 +𝐶 2 Some solutions for 1D steady

To describe a heat transfer problem completely, Two Boundary state heat transfer via
Conditions must be given for each direction of the coordinate conduction
system along which heat transfer is significant
Boundary Conditions 50°C
T(0)= 50°C and T(L)= 15°C
15°C Only Solution that
Number of boundary conditions for the solution satisfy the boundary
o 1D problem: 2 BC in x-direction
x(m)
conditions
L
o 2D problem: 2 BC in x-direction, 2 in y-direction
o 3D problem: 2 in x-dir., 2 in y-dir., and 2 in z-dir

Heat Equation is first order in time. Hence one Initial Condition (IC) needed
 Boundary and Initial Conditions
Solution of the heat equation depends upon the boundary conditions of the medium.

Dirichlet boundary condition: Surface is maintained at constant temperature.

Neumann boundary condition: Temperature gradient/heat flux rate is constant

at the boundary.

Adiabatic boundary condition: Temperature gradient is zero at the boundary.

Convective boundary condition: It is obtained by convection

heating or cooling at the surface.
 EXAMPLE
The temperature distribution across a wall 1m thick at
a certain instant of time is given as
T(x) = a+ bx + cx2
where T is in degrees Celsius and x is in meters, while
a=900°C, b=-300°C/m, and c=-50°C/m2. A uniform
heat generation, q=1000W/m3 is present in the wall of
area 10m2 having the properties ρ=1600 kg/m3, k=40
W/m K, and cp=4 kJ/kg.K.
1. Determine the rate of heat transfer entering the wall
(x=0) and leaving the wall (x=1m).
2. Determine the rate of change of energy storage in
the wall.
3. Determine the time rate of temperature change at x
= 0, 0.25, and 0.5 m.
 EXAMPLE
The temperature distribution across a wall 1m thick at a certain
instant of time is given as
T(x) = a+ bx + cx2
where T is in degrees Celsius and x is in meters, while a=900°C,
b=-300°C/m, and c=-50°C/m2. A uniform heat generation,
q=1000W/m3 is present in the wall of area 10m2 having the
properties ρ=1600 kg/m3, k=40 W/m K, and cp=4 kJ/kg.K.
1. Determine the rate of heat transfer entering the wall (x=0) and
leaving the wall (x=1m).

𝑞𝑖𝑛 =𝑞 𝑥 ( 0 )= − 𝑘𝐴 ( |
𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑥
𝑥= 0 )
¿ − 𝑘𝐴 ( |
𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑥 )
𝑥 =0 =− 𝑘𝐴(𝑏+ 2𝑐𝑥 )𝑥=0

¿ −𝑏𝑘𝐴=− ( −300 )( 40 ) ( 10 ) =120 𝑘𝑊

( | )
𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 =𝑞 𝑥 ( 𝐿 ) =− 𝑘𝐴
𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑥
𝑥= 𝐿

𝜕 𝑥|
¿ −𝑘𝐴 ( 𝑥 = 𝐿 )=− 𝑘𝐴(𝑏+ 2𝑐𝑥 )
𝜕𝑇
𝑥= 𝐿 ¿ −(𝑏+2 𝑐𝐿)𝑘𝐴=− ( −300+ 2 ( − 50 ) ( 1 )) (40)(10)=160 𝑘𝑊
 EXAMPLE
The temperature distribution across a wall 1m thick at a certain
instant of time is given as
T(x) = a+ bx + cx2
where T is in degrees Celsius and x is in meters, while a=900°C,
b=-300°C/m, and c=-50°C/m2. A uniform heat generation,
q=1000W/m3 is present in the wall of area 10m2 having the
properties ρ=1600 kg/m3, k=40 W/m K, and cp=4 kJ/kg.K.
2. Determine the rate of change of energy storage in the wall.
The rate of change of energy storage in the wall may be
determined by applying an overall energy balance to the wall.

˙ 𝑖𝑛 + 𝐸˙ 𝑔 − 𝐸˙ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐸
𝐸 ˙ 𝑠𝑡 𝑤h𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐸
˙ 𝑔 =𝑞˙ 𝐴𝐿

˙ 𝑠𝑡 = 𝐸
𝐸 ˙ 𝑖𝑛 + 𝐸
˙ 𝑔−𝐸
˙ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 =𝑞𝑖𝑛 + 𝑞
˙ 𝐴𝐿 −𝑞 𝑜𝑢𝑡

˙ 𝑠𝑡 =120+ ( 1000 ×10 ×1 ) −160=− 30 𝑘𝑊

𝐸
 EXAMPLE
The temperature distribution across a wall 1m thick at a certain
instant of time is given as
T(x) = a+ bx + cx2
where T is in degrees Celsius and x is in meters, while a=900°C,
b=-300°C/m, and c=-50°C/m2. A uniform heat generation,
q=1000W/m3 is present in the wall of area 10m2 having the
properties ρ=1600 kg/m3, k=40 W/m K, and cp=4 kJ/kg.K.
3. Determine the time rate of temperature change at x = 0, 0.25,
and 0.5 m.
The time rate of change of the temperature at any point in the
medium may be determined from the heat equation

[ ] ( )( ) [ ] ( )( )
2
1 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝑇 ˙
𝑞 𝑘 𝜕𝑇 𝑘 𝜕 𝑇 𝑞˙ 2
= + = 𝑤h𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛼= = +
𝛼 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥
2
𝑘 𝜌 𝑐𝑝 𝜕𝑡 𝜌 𝑐 𝑝 𝜕 𝑥2 𝜌 𝑐𝑝

( ) ( )
2
𝜕 𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 2
= = ( 𝑏+ 2𝑐𝑥 ) = 2𝑐 = ( 2× − 50 ) =−100 ℃ / 𝑚
𝜕𝑥
2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

The derivative is independent of position in the medium. Therefore, the time rate of temperature change is also independent of
position and is calculated as follows:
 EXAMPLE
The temperature distribution across a wall 1m thick at a certain
instant of time is given as
T(x) = a+ bx + cx2
where T is in degrees Celsius and x is in meters, while a=900°C,
b=-300°C/m, and c=-50°C/m2. A uniform heat generation,
q=1000W/m3 is present in the wall of area 10m2 having the
properties ρ=1600 kg/m3, k=40 W/m K, and cp=4 kJ/kg.K.
3. Determine the time rate of temperature change at x = 0, 0.25,
and 0.5 m.
The time rate of change of the temperature at any point in the
medium may be determined from the heat equation

] ( )( ) ( )
2
𝜕𝑇 𝑘 𝜕 𝑇 𝑞˙2
𝜕 𝑇 2
= + 2
=−100 ℃ /𝑚
𝜕𝑡 𝜌 𝑐𝑝 𝜕 𝑥 2
𝜌 𝑐𝑝 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑇
=
40
𝜕 𝑡 1600 × 4
(− 100 ) +
1000
(
1600 × 4 )
𝜕𝑇
=( − 6.25 ×10 ) + ( 1.56 × 10 ) =− 4.69 × 10 ℃ / 𝑠
−1 −1 −1
𝜕𝑡
PRACTICE PROBLEMS

(Incropera, 5th
edition)
2.20, 2.22, 2.25, 2.29, 2.40, 2.51