The first Memoir of Galois.

II

15th April 2015

The Fundamental Theorem

The connection with the modern definition of Galois group

is given by the following theorem.1
Theorem (Fundamental Theorem)
The group G of permutations defined by the polynomial F (t) is
such that every rational function of the roots which is left
unchanged by the permutations of G is rationally known and
vice versa, every function of the roots which assumes a value in
K is left unchanged by all the permutations of the group G. 

1
I give a free paraphrase of Galois’s original statement. See [4, Prop. I,
p. 51].
Proof.
Suppose that g(x1 , . . . , xn ) is a function of the roots. We have
proved that all the roots are rational functions of V1 , then

g(x1 , . . . , xn ) = ḡ(V1 ).

If the function ḡ is left unchanged by the substitutions σ, τ, . . .

then
ḡ(V1 ) = ḡ(Vσ ) = ḡ(Vτ ) = . . .
The number of these substitutions (which equals the degree of
F(t)) is r, and
1
ḡ(V1 ) = ḡ(Vσ ) = ḡ(Vτ ) = · · · = (ḡ(V1 ) + ḡ(Vσ ) + ḡ(Vτ ) + . . . ) .
r
Proof (continued).
It follows that ḡ(V1 ) is a symmetric function of the roots of
F (t) and may be expressed by means of its coefficients, which
are elements of K.
Vice versa, if ḡ(V1 ) = k, then V1 is a root of the equation

ḡ(V ) − k = 0.

It follows that this equation admits all the other roots of F (t)
(an irreducible polynomial) and its value is left unchanged by
the substitutions of G. 
Remark
Note that this proof does not use the fact that the substitutions
identified by the roots of F (t) constitute a group. In effect, what
is used is the symmetry of the roots themselves. 

Remark
The proof given by Jordan of the fact that the roots of F (t)
identify the Galois Group is the following.2
To give it in the simplest way, it is convenient to change a little
the notations: V1 is still the value that the identity substitution
1 gives to V ; and Vσ , Vτ , . . . will denote the values that V
assumes under the effect of the permutations σ, τ, . . . that
identify the other roots of F (t). Hence

F (t) = (t − V1 )(t − Vσ )(t − Vτ ) · · · .

The Fundamental Theorem grants the fact that this polynomial

is left unchanged by the substitutions 1, σ, τ, . . . .
2
See [5, p, 258]. The proof sketched by Galois is given in [6, pp. 114-116].
Remark (continued)
If we apply the substitution σ, the polynomial F (t) remains
unchanged, but on the other hand it becomes

F (t) = (t − Vσ )(t − Vσ2 )(t − Vτ σ ) · · · .

This is possible if and only if the roots are still the same, which
means that
σ, σ 2 , στ, . . .
are the original permutations

1, σ, τ. . . .

simply listed in a different order.

Of course the argument used for σ may be used for every other
permutation corresponding to the roots of F (t) which implies the
closure under multiplication. This property is sufficient, because
we have to identity a finite group. 
Remark
Note that this result permits us to associate to every
permutation of G an automorphism of E = K(x1 , . . . , xn ) which
fixes the elements of K. But every such automorphism gives
rise to a permutation of the roots and it appears that the Galois
group is exactly the group of all the permutations that are
automorphisms of E which have K as fixed field. This idea will
be brought out in the text of Dedekind edited by Scharlau in [7].
How influential the lectures of Dedekind were in the second half
of nineteenth century is not easy to assess.
We may also observe3 that the Galois group is the largest group
under which every rational function of the roots which has a
rational value remains numerically unaltered. Alternatively it is
the smallest group such that every rational function of the roots
which remains under it numerically unaltered has a rational
value. Hence the Galois group is uniquely defined by its
fundamental properties. 
3
See [3, pp. 147-48] who gives this formulation.
Remark
A resolvent of the form previously described gives the possibility
of constructing the Galois Group of an equation but other
convenient functions of the roots may be used.
Consider the polynomial

x4 − 10x2 + 1. (1)

If we denote one of its roots by α, another root is given by −α,

and, since (1) is a reciprocal polynomial, α1 and − α1 are the
remaining roots. Of course α is a root of the irreducible
polynomial (1) of Q[x] and since all its roots are function of α
we have the following presentation of the Galois Group.
Remark (continued)

1 1
α α −α −
α α
1 1
−α −α α −
α α
1 1 1
− α −α
α α α
1 1 1
− − −α α
α α α
Note that this presentation is obtained without any need of
complicated calculations. 
The first example given by Galois
He states as obvious that the general equation of degree m has
as its group Sm because “in this case the symmetric functions
are the only ones that can be determined rationally.”4 The
result is quite evident if the general equation is considered as an
equations having the roots x1 , x2 , . . . , xm to be conceived as
indeterminates. But it is not so obvious if the general equation
of degree m is an equation of the form

xm − a1 xm−1 + a2 xm−2 + · · · + (−1)m am

in which the coefficients are indeterminates. The modern proof

consists in comparing the splitting field of this equation with
K(x1 , x2 , . . . , xm ), where x1 , . . . , xm are indeterminates, but is
not so straightforward.5 Anyway, till now we have no clues
about Galois’ mind about this result.6
4
[4, p. 51].
5
See [2, pp. 77-78].
6
The results stated in [4, pp. 75-76] are without proofs.
The second example given by Galois

Consider the equation

xp − 1
= xp−1 + xp−2 + · · · + x + 1 = 0. (p prime) (2)
x−1
In this case Galois affirms that the roots x1 , x2 , . . . , xp−1 can be
named in such a way that the group simply consists of the p − 1
powers of the cyclic permutation (x1 x2 . . . xp−1 ). We have a
hint of the possible proof devised by Galois by a text7 where he
considers the more general case of an irreducible equation
whose roots are functions of one of them.8

7
See [4, pp. 89-91].
8
See the example given in the previous Remark which shows a simple
calculation of the Galois Group of an equation in the case in which all the
roots are functions of one of them.
We need two preliminary facts.
Theorem
An equation f (x) = 0 is irreducible if and only if its Galois
group G is transitive. 

Proof.
Suppose that G be not transitive and that the root x1 may be
sent by the substitution of G only into x1 , x2 , . . . , xm , with
m < ∂f . Then the substitutions of G do not modify the
symmetric functions of x1 , x2 , . . . , xm , and the polynomial
(x − x1 )(x − x2 ) · · · (x − xm ) has its coefficients in the ground
field and is a divisor of f (x). Then f (x) must be reducible.
Conversely, suppose that G be transitive and f (x) be divisible
by (x − x1 ) · · · (x − xm ) with m < ∂f . A substitution of G
exists that sends x1 into xm+1 . By the effect of this substitution
the polynomial (x − x1 ) · · · (x − xm ) cannot remain unchanged,
because it acquires the new root xm+1 . Hence it cannot have all
its coefficients in the ground field.9
9
[5, p. 259].
The second fact we need is that the order of a transitive group
over n letters is divisible by n, as it is easily seen.10
Theorem
Let p be a prime number and consider the equation
xp − 1
= xp−1 + xp−2 + · · · + x + 1 = 0. (3)
x−1
The group of this equation is cyclic of order p − 1. 

Proof.
The polynomial at the left side of (3) is irreducible, as was
proved by Gauss. Gauss also proved that Z∗p has a primitive
root (a generator of the cyclic group of the elements different
from 0). Let γ be such a primitive root and, having singled out
a root r of the equation (3), denote all its roots by
2 p−2
x1 = r, x2 = rγ , x3 = rγ , . . . , xp−1 = rγ .

10
[5, p. 29].
Proof (continued).
The Galois group has been defined by a Galois Resolvent
2 p−1
V1 = a1 r + a2 rγ + a3 rγ + · · · + ap−1 rγ = w(r). (4)

The minimum polynomial F (t) of V1 verifies F (w(r)) = 0.

From the irreducibility of the polynomial

xp−1 + xp−2 + · · · + x + 1

we have also that

  2 
0 = F (w(rγ )) = F w rγ = ...

j
It follows that all the values rγ are possible candidates to
produce the substitutions of the Galois group.
Proof (continued).
The substitution of rγ for r produces the arrangement

xp−1 , x1 , x2 , . . . , xp−2

and proceeding in the same way we obtain all the cyclic

permutations of (x1 x2 . . . xp−1 ).
It follows that the Galois group is contained in the cyclic group
generated by the circular permutation (x1 x2 . . . xp−1 ).
But since its order must be a multiple of p − 1, it coincides with
this group.11 

11
See also [5, pp. 291-297].
Let us consider the equation x5 − 1 = 0. It has the root 1 which
is fixed by the substitutions of its Galois Group, and the roots
2π i
r=e 5 , r2 , r3 , r4

Since 2 is a primitive root modulo 5, it is easily checked that

the Galois Group is given by the permutations

r r2 r4 r3
r2 r4 r3 r
r4 r3 r r2
r3 r r2 r4

Note that a similar result may be obtained for every prime p.

For example for p = 17, a primitive root is 3 and we may
describe the corresponding cyclic group of order 16 without the
necessity of complicated calculations. We have simply to list
the exponent as

1, 3, 9, 10, 13, 5, 15, 11, 16, 14, 8, 7, 4, 12, 2, 6 

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Galois Theory.
Notre Dame Lectures, University of Notre Dame Press,
1944.
Second revised edition.
E. Artin.
Galois Theory.
Dover, New York, 1998.
Unabridged and unaltered republication of [1].
E. Dehn.
Algebraic equations.
Columbia University Press, 1930.
E. Galois.
Écrits et mémoires mathématiques d’Évariste Galois.
Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 1976.
Publiés par R. Bourgne et J. P. Azra. Préface de J.
Dieudonné. Deuxième édition revue et augmenté.
Réimpression autorisée, Editions J. Gabay, 1997.
C. Jordan.
Traité des substitutions et des équations algébriques.
Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 1870.
Éditions Jacques Gabay, 1989.
P. Neumann.
The mathematical writings of Évariste Galois.
The European Mathematical Society, 2011.
Édition critique intégrale du texte avec traduction anglaise.
W. Scharlau, editor.
Richard Dedekind 1831-1981. Eine Würdigung zu seinem
150. Geburtstag, Braunschweig/Wiesbaden, 1981. F. Vieweg
und Sohn.