2 2

2
8
=
n
n h
E
mL
2 2
2 2
8
0
c t
+ =
c
m
E
x h
Particle in a Box (infinite square well potential)
Particle in a 1 dimensional Box
L
x n
L
x
n
t
sin
2
=
Particle in a 2 dimensional Box
2 2 2
2 2 2
8
0
c c t
+ + =
c c
m
E
x y h
4
t
t
=
x y
y
x
n n
x y x y
n y
n x
sin sin
L L L L
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
2
2
8
y
y
x
x
n n
L
n
L
n
m
h
E
y x
2
2
2
8
0 V + =
m
E
h
t

2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
8
0
c c c
+ + + =
c c c
m
E
x y z h
t

Particle in a 3 dimensional Box
8
t
t t
=
x y z
y
x z
n n n
x y z x y z
n y
n x n z
sin sin sin
L L L L L L
2
2 2
2
8
(
| |
| | | |
(
= + +
|
| |
|
(
\ . \ .
\ .

x y z
y
x z
n n n
x y z
n
n n h
E
m L L L
Particle in a 3 Dimensional Box
Degeneracy: Degeneracy is a natural
phenomena which occurs when quantum
levels (different quantum numbers) have
the same energy.

For excited states we have degeneracy.
Particle in a 3 Dimensional Box
There are three 1
st
excited states having
the same energy. They correspond to
combinations of the quantum numbers
whose squares sum to 6.
That is
2
2 2
2 , 1 , 1 1 , 2 , 1 1 , 1 , 2
2
6
mL
E E E
t
= = =
Particle in a 3 Dimensional Box
The 1
st
five energy levels for a cubic box.
n
2
Degeneracy
12 None (2,2,2)
11 3 ?
9 3 ?

6 3 (2,1,1; 1,2,1; 1,1,2)
3 None (1,1,1)
4E
0
11/3E
0
2E
0
3E
0
E
0
Energy
E
0
is ground state energy

Concept of Modern Physics
by A. Beiser
Another phenomenon explained by the particle-wave is tunneling,
which occurs when a particle actually passes through a seemingly
impenetrable barrier. When a particle hits a barrier, it either has
enough energy to break through or it doesn't and bounces back. But
with a wave, part of it can pass through while part of it is reflected,
making it possible for the particle to appear on the other side.
Quantum mechanical tunneling; penetration of particles
through rectangular potential barrier
Quantum mechanical tunneling; penetration of particles
through rectangular potential barrier
Potential Barrier: when a particle approaches a region
in which the entrance of the particle is opposed by some
force, then the region is said to form a barrier for the
particle.

Tunnel effect: when a particle is able to cross a potential
barrier even when its energy is less than the barrier
height, then this phenomenon is called tunnel effect. It
is purely quantum mechanical phenomenon, never
realizable classically.

The emission of o-particles from atomic nuclei is an
example of tunnel effect
Quantum mechanical tunneling; penetration of particles
through rectangular potential barrier


2 L
..
o
2 2
1
1 2 2
2 2
2
0 o 2 2 2
2 2
3
3 2 2
Proof : Show that Transmission coeff . T e
If E<V : Schr odinger equation for the three regions
d 8 m
V 0 E 0
dx h
d 8 m
V V (E V ) 0 (i)
dx h
d 8 m
V 0 E 0
dx h
Le
|
=

t
= + =

t
= + =
`

t
= + =

)
2 2
2 2
o
2 2
n
2
2
1
1 2
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
3
3 2
8 m(V E) 8 mE
t and
h h
Eq (i) becomes
d
0
dx
d
0 (ii)
dx
d
0
dx

t t
o = | =

+ o =

| =
`

+ o =

)
n
i x i x
1 1 1
x x
2 2 2
i x i x
3 3 3
The solution of these eq s are
A e B e
A e B e (iii)
A e B e
o o
| |
o o
= +

= +
`

= +
)
Free space
oscillating wave
Bound space
exponential
Incident +
Reflected
Zero ( no
reflected
wave)
2m(V E)
o
where =
2 L
T e

|
|
~
1 2
1 2
n
must be finite, single vauled and continous everywhere along x- axis
Applying boundary conditions
at x=0 and
d d
dx dx
These condition when applied to eq (iii)

`
=

)
2 3
3 2
at x=L
d d
dx dx
=

`
=

)
1 1 2 2
1 1 2 2
L L i L
2 2 3
L L i L
2 2 3
A B A B
for x=0
i A i B A B
A e B e A e
for x=L
A e B e i A e
The ratio between the squares of the magnitudes of the transmitted and the incident
wave amplitude is
| | o
| | o
+ = +

o o = | |

+ =

| | = o

2 2
2 L
3
2 2 2
1
2
o
2 2
| A | 16
T= e
| A | ( 1)
(V E) 16
where and has a magnitude of the order of unity
E ( 1)
T determines the probability of a particle penetrating through barrier and can be
call
|
q
~
q +
| q
q = =
o q +

ed the "transmission coefficient"

o 2 L
Approximation transmission probability
2m(V E)
T e where =
This is the expression for the probabilty
of penetration
|

~ |
Quantum mechanical tunneling; penetration of particles
through rectangular potential barrier
o- Decay: Penetration of o- particle (K.E. few MeV) through
Nucleus (Vo25MeV)

Tunnel Diode, Scanning tunneling Microscope (STM)
o
o
As L , T 0
As high, (V E), T 0
or V

| >>

The tunnel effect provides explanations for the following
phenomena

The reverse breakdown of semiconductor diodes.

The electrical breakdown of insulators.

The field emission of electrons from a cold metallic surface.

The switching action of tunnel diodes.

The emission of o-particles from a radioactive elements.
Example: Calculate transmission probability

(i) E=1eV, V
o
=10eV, L=0.050nm




(ii) E=2eV, V
o
=10eV, L=0.050nm


If Length Is Doubled

o 2 L
16 7
2m(V E)
T e where =
T e 1.1 10
|

~ |
~ =
7
T 2.4 10 (Two Times)

=
14
14
E 1eV T 1.3 10
E = 2eV T 5.1 10 ( four times)

= =
=
Thus, T is more sensitive to the width of the
barrier than to the particle energy here.
Infinite square well
Finite square well
Comparison between infinite and finite potential well: Wavefunction
o 2 L
Approximation transmission probability
2m(V E)
T e where =
This is the expression for the probabilty
of penetration
|

~ |
Linear Harmonic Oscillator
(Parabolic Potential Well)
Imp: Linear Harmonic oscillator (Parabolic Potential Well)

A simple harmonic oscillator is a particle performing 1-D motion under
restoring force (F=-kx) and potential energy V=1/2kx
2
, where k is force
constant.


** V x
2


The plot against x is a parabola and we may describe the particle as being
in a parabolic potential well.
If E Total energy of the particle.
Classically : * E can have any value.
* Particle oscillate back and forth between x=-A and x=+A
* The velocity of the particle is maximum at the centre of path
and drops to zero at the ends ( x=A)
* E=K.E.+ P.E.
* Thus , classically , the probability of finding the particle is
minimum at the center and maximum at the ends.
* Particle can not go beyond. x =A
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
n n
Hermite Polynomial
Quantum Mechanical description :
d 8 m 1
(E kx ) 0 (i)
dx h 2
V
8 mE mk
Let = , =
h
d
( x ) 0 (ii)
dx
(x) C H ( ) e where = x
where n = 0,1,2,3,..
_

t
+ =
t
o |

+ o | =
= _ _ |
.
n
1 1 k
E (n )h where
2 2 m
= + u u =
t
Wavefunction representations for the
first eight bound eigenstates, n = 0 to 7.
The horizontal axis shows the position
x. The graphs are not normalized
Some trajectories of a harmonic oscillator according to Newton's laws of classical
mechanics (A-B), and according to the Schrdinger equation of quantum mechanics
(C-F). In (A-B), the particle (represented as a ball attached to a spring) oscillates back
and forth. In (C-F), some solutions to the Schrdinger Equation are shown, where the
horizontal axis is position, and the vertical axis is the real part (blue) or imaginary
part (red) of the wavefunction. (C,D,E,F).
Comparison of Classical and Quantum Probabilities for
Harmonic Oscillator : finding the oscillator at different position
a) For n=0
probability is opposite at x=0






The relative probability of finding it in any interval Ax is just
the inverse of its average velocity over that interval.
Comparison of Classical and Quantum Probabilities for
Harmonic Oscillator : finding the oscillator at different position
The classical probability is strictly
contained between the vertical lines which
represent the classical limit.
The quantum probabilities do extend into
the classically forbidden region,
exponentially decaying into that region
a) For n=0
probability is opposite at x=0






Comparison of Classical and Quantum Probabilities for
Harmonic Oscillator : finding the oscillator at different position
The fact that the overall
picture of probability of
finding the oscillator at a
given value of x converges
for the quantum and
classical pictures is called
the
correspondence
principle.
The greater the quantum number,
the closer the quantum physics
approaches classical physics
The energy of the oscillator is E=(p
2
/2m)+(kx
2
/2), where p is its
momentum, displacement from the equilibrium position is x and spring
constant is k. In classical physics the minimum energy of the oscillator is
E
min
=0. Use the uncertainty principle to find an expression for E in terms
of x only and show that the minimum energy is actually
min
E ( / 2) k / m =
(or hv/2, where v is frequency of the oscillator).
Q.7
Tut 7
2 2
2 2
2
min
2
3
2
4 2
p x p= hence
2 2x
p 1 k
E= kx x (1)
2m 2 8mx 2
for E
dE
0
dx
( 2)
kx 0
8m x
( / 2) ( / 2)
x or x
mk
km
A A >
+ = +
=

+ =
= =
2
2
min
min
min
Substituting x in equation 1, we get
k ( / 2)
E
( / 2)
2
km
8m( )
km
E ( / 2) k / m
1 k
If frequency =
2 m
h
E
2
= +
=
u
t
u
=
Find the expectation value of <x> for the first two states of
harmonic oscillators.
Q.6
Tut 9

Summary : Quantum Mechanics
1. De-Broglie wavelength
2. Matter waves: Group velocity and Phase velocity
3. Uncertainty principle : Numerical and Applications
i. Single slit diffraction
ii. Non-exsistance of electron inside the nucleus.
4. Wave function: Normalization, average values.
5. Schrdinger Equation:
i. Time dependent
ii. Time independent
a) Infinite potential well: Particle in a box
b) Potential Barrier: Quantum tunneling
c) Harmonic Oscillator