The Radiation Intensity is also related to the far-zone electric field of an

antenna as:
𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟐
𝑼 𝜽, ∅ = |𝑬 (𝐫, θ, ∅)|𝟐 = [|𝑬𝒓 (𝐫, θ, ∅)|𝟐 +|𝑬θ (𝐫, θ, ∅)|𝟐 +|𝑬∅ (𝐫, θ, ∅)|𝟐 ]
𝟐𝜼 𝟐𝜼

𝒓𝟐
𝑼 𝜽, ∅ ≅ [|𝑬θ (𝐫, θ, ∅)|𝟐 + |𝑬∅ (𝐫, θ, ∅)|𝟐 ]
𝟐𝜼
𝟏 𝟐
𝑼 𝜽, ∅ ≅ [ 𝐸𝜽𝒐 𝛉, ∅ + |𝐸∅𝒐 (θ, ∅)|𝟐 ]
𝟐𝜼
𝒆 −𝒋𝒌𝒓
Where, 𝑬(𝐫, θ, ∅) = 𝑬𝒐 (θ, ∅) (far-zone electric-field intensity of the antenna)
𝒓
𝑬𝒓 𝐫, θ, ∅ ≅ 0. (in the far field zone)

and 𝐸𝜽𝒐 and 𝐸∅𝒐 are the far electric-field components of the antenna
η = intrinsic impedance of the medium
1
For an Isotropic Source, the radiation intensity, U, will be
independent of the angles θ and φ. Thus 𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒅 can be written as:

𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝜴
𝑼𝒅𝜴 = 𝑼𝒐 𝜴
𝒅𝜴
or,
2π 𝜋
𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝑼𝒐 𝟎 𝟎
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒅𝜽 𝒅∅ = 𝟒𝝅𝑼𝒐

Therefore the radiation intensity of an isotropic source is:

𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒅
𝑼𝒐 = [W/unit solid angle]
𝟒𝝅
2
Also the case is applied for the radiation density, 𝑾𝒓𝒂𝒅 , which will
be independent of the angles θ and φ, as. Thus 𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒅 can be written
as:
2π 𝜋
𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝒔
𝑾𝒓𝒂𝒅 . 𝒅s = 𝟎 𝟎
𝑾𝒐 𝒓 𝒂𝒓 . 𝒓𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒅𝜽 𝒅∅ 𝒂𝒓

𝟐 2π 𝜋
𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝑾𝒐 𝒓 𝟎 𝟎
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒅𝜽 𝒅∅ = 𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐 𝑾𝒐
Hence, 𝑾𝒐 can be written as:

𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒅
𝑾𝒐 = 𝒂𝒓 [w/𝑚𝟐 ]
𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐
3
2.5 BeamWidth The beamwidth of a pattern (of an antenna) is defined
as the angular separation between two identical points on opposite side of
the pattern maximum.

HPBW = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟔𝟓𝒐

HPBW: Half-power beamwidth FNBW = 𝟔𝟎𝒐
FNBW: First-null beamwidth

Figures (a) and (b) show the

Three- and two-dimensional
power pattern in linear scale
of 𝑼 𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜽 (𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝟑𝜽)

a-3D pattern b-2D pattern 4

Example: The normalized radiation Intensity of an antenna is given by,
𝐔 𝛉 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜽 (𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝟑𝜽), (0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 90◦, 0◦ ≤ 𝜙 ≤ 360◦), Find:
a. Half-power beamwidth HPBW (in radians and degrees)
b. First-null beamwidth FNBW (in radians and degrees).
Solution: Since U(𝜃) represents the power pattern, therefore at half maximum

U(𝜃)⃒𝜽=𝜽𝒉 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜽 (𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝟑𝜽)⃒𝜽=𝜽𝒉 = 1/2 ⇒ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽𝒉 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟑𝜽𝒉 = 0.707

−𝟏 𝟎.𝟕𝟎𝟕
⇒ 𝜽𝒉 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 using numerical technique to solve this eq.
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟑𝜽𝒉

⇒ 𝜽𝒉 ≈ 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟑𝟐𝟓𝟎

Because of symmetry of U(𝜃) about the max at 𝜽 = 𝟎., then
HPBW = 2𝜽𝒉 = 0.5rad = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟔𝟓𝟎
5
b. For the first null beamwidth (FNBW)
U(𝜃)⃒𝜽=𝜽𝒏 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜽 (𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝟑𝜽)⃒𝜽=𝜽𝒏 = 0 ⇒ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟑𝜽𝒏 = 0,

This give us two solutions,

𝝅
1- 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽𝒏 = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝜽𝒏 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 𝟎 ⇒ 𝜽𝒏 = rad = 𝟗𝟎𝟎
𝟐
𝟏 𝝅
2- 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟑𝜽𝒏 = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝜽𝒏 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 𝟎 ⇒ 𝜽𝒏 = rad = 𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝟑 𝟔
Taking the smallest angle, and also because of symmetry of U(𝜃) about
the max at 𝜽 = 𝟎., then

𝝅
FNBW = 2𝜽𝒏 = rad = 𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝟑

6
2.6 Directivity: The directivity of an antenna defined as “the ratio of the
radiation intensity in a given direction from the antenna to the radiation
intensity averaged over all directions.
The average radiation intensity is equal to the total power radiated by the
antenna divided by 4π.
More simply, the directivity of a non isotropic source is equal to the ratio
of its radiation intensity in a given direction over that of an isotropic
source.
Therefore, The directivity (D) in mathematical form is given by:
𝑼 𝑼 𝟒𝝅𝑼
𝑫= = =
𝑼𝟎 (𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒅 ) 𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒅
𝟒𝝅 7
If the direction is not specified, the direction of maximum radiation
intensity (maximum directivity) will be considered and expressed as:

U⃒𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑼𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟒𝝅𝑼𝒎𝒂𝒙

𝑫𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑫𝟎 = = =
𝑼𝟎 𝑼𝟎 𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒅
D = directivity (dimensionless)
𝑫𝟎 = maximum directivity (dimensionless)
U = radiation intensity (W/unit solid angle)
𝑼𝒎𝒂𝒙 = maximum radiation intensity (W/unit solid angle)
𝑼𝟎 = radiation intensity of isotropic source (W/unit solid angle)
𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒅 = total radiated power (W)
8
Note that for an isotropic source, the directivity is unity since U,
𝑼𝒎𝒂𝒙 , and 𝑼𝟎 are all equal to each other.

Partial directivity: It is defined as that part of the radiation intensity,

which corresponds to a given polarization, divided by the total
radiation intensity averaged over all directions
𝐃𝐨 = 𝐃𝛉 + 𝐃𝛟
𝐔𝛉 𝟒𝛑𝐔𝛉
𝐃𝛉 = 𝐏𝐫𝐚𝐝 𝛉 + 𝐏𝐫𝐚𝐝 𝛟
= .
𝐏𝐫𝐚𝐝 𝛉 + 𝐏𝐫𝐚𝐝 𝛟
𝟒𝛑

𝐔𝛟 𝟒𝛑𝐔𝛟
𝐃𝛟 = 𝐏𝐫𝐚𝐝 𝛉 + 𝐏𝐫𝐚𝐝 𝛟
= .
𝐏𝐫𝐚𝐝 𝛉 + 𝐏𝐫𝐚𝐝 𝛟
9
𝟒𝛑
 𝐔𝛉 = radiation intensity in a given direction contained in θ field component
𝐔𝛟 = radiation intensity in a given direction contained in 𝛟 field component
𝐏𝐫𝐚𝐝 𝛉 = radiated power in all directions contained in θ field component
𝐏𝐫𝐚𝐝 𝛟 = radiated power in all directions contained in 𝛟 field component.

Example: Find the maximum directivity 𝑫𝟎 of the antenna whose )U( is given by:
𝑼 = 𝑨𝒐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 θ [W/unit solid angle]

U⃒𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑼𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟒𝝅𝑼𝒎𝒂𝒙

Solution: Since 𝑫𝟎 = = = and the maximum radiation
𝑼𝟎 𝑼𝟎 𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒅

𝝅
intensity occurs at θ = , ⇒ 𝑼𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑨𝒐 and 𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝜴
𝑼𝒅𝜴
𝟐

2π 𝜋 2π 𝜋 𝟐
⇒ 𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝟎
𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 .
𝟎 𝒐
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒅𝜽 𝒅𝝓 = 𝑨𝒐 𝟎 𝟎
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒅𝜽 𝒅𝝓 10
 ⇒ 𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝝅𝟐 𝑨𝒐
𝟒𝝅𝑨𝒐 𝟒
𝑫𝒐 = 𝟐 = = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟕
⇒ 𝝅 𝑨𝒐 𝝅
We can write the directivity in terms of the directional angles as:
Since, 𝑼 = 𝑼𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 θ ⇒ 𝑫 = 𝑫𝒐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 θ

⇒ 𝑫 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟕 𝒔𝒊𝒏 θ

Instead if the radiation intensity of the antenna is given by:

𝑼 = 𝑨𝒐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽 [W/unit solid angle] then,
11
 2π 𝜋 𝟐 2π 𝜋 𝟑
⇒ 𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝟎
𝑨
𝟎 𝒐
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽. 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒅𝜽 𝒅𝝓 = 𝑨𝒐 𝟎 𝟎
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒅𝜽 𝒅𝝓

𝟖𝝅
𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝑨𝒐
𝟑
𝟒𝝅𝑨𝒐 𝟑
𝑫𝒐 = = = 𝟏. 𝟓
⇒ 𝟖𝝅
𝑨𝒐 𝟐
𝟑
And the directivity in terms of the directional angles as:

Since, 𝑼 = 𝑼𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽 ⇒ 𝑫 = 𝑫𝒐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽

⇒ 𝑫 = 𝟏. 𝟓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽
12
13
Example: Let the directivity of 𝒂 𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒇-wavelength dipole
antenna is given by: 𝑫 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝜽

𝑫 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝜽 =1
−𝟏 𝟏
→ 𝜽 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 = 𝟓𝟕. 44 𝟎
𝟏.𝟔𝟕

14
15
A more general expression for the directivity can be developed to include
sources with radiation patterns that may be functions of both spherical
coordinate angles 𝜃 and 𝜙.
Let the radiation intensity of an antenna be of the form:
𝟏 𝟐
𝑼 𝜽, ∅ = 𝑩𝒐 𝑭(𝛉, ∅) ≅ [ 𝐸𝜽𝒐 𝛉, ∅ + |𝐸∅𝒐 (θ, ∅)|𝟐 ]
𝟐𝜼

where 𝑩𝒐 is a constant, and 𝑬𝒐𝜽 and 𝑬𝒐∅ are the antenna’s far-zone electric-field
components. The maximum value of 𝑼𝒎𝒂𝒙 ,will be:
𝑼𝒎𝒂𝒙 =𝑩𝒐 𝑭(𝛉, ∅)⃒𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑩𝒐 𝑭𝒎𝒂𝒙 (𝛉, ∅)

The total radiated power is :

2π 𝝅
𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝛀
𝑼 𝜽, ∅ 𝒅𝜴 = 𝑩𝒐 𝟎 𝟎
𝑭(𝜽, ∅)𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒅𝜽 𝒅∅
16
The general expression for the directivity and maximum directivity can be
written respectively as:
𝑼 𝑩𝒐 𝑭(𝜽,∅)
𝑫 𝜽, ∅ = = 2𝜋 𝝅
𝑼𝟎 𝑩𝒐 𝟎 𝟎 𝑭(𝜽,∅)𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒅𝜽 𝒅∅)
( 𝟒𝝅
𝑭(𝜽,∅)
𝑫 𝜽, ∅ = 𝟒𝝅 𝟐𝝅 𝝅
𝟎 𝟎 𝑭(𝜽,∅)𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒅𝜽 𝒅∅
𝑭(𝜽,∅)⃒𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑫𝒐 = 𝑫𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟒𝝅 𝟐𝝅 𝝅
𝟎 𝟎 𝑭(𝜽,∅)𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒅𝜽 𝒅∅

Also 𝑫𝒐 can be written as:

𝟒𝝅 𝟒𝝅
𝑫𝒐 = 𝟐𝝅 𝝅
=
{ 𝜴𝑨
𝟎 𝟎 𝑭(𝜽,∅)𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒅𝜽 𝒅∅} 𝑭(𝜽,∅)⃒𝒎𝒂𝒙
17
where 𝜴𝑨 is the beam solid angle, and it is given by:
1 2π π
𝜴𝑨 = 𝟎 𝟎
𝑭 𝜽, ∅ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒅𝜽 𝒅∅
𝑭(𝛉,∅)⃒𝒎𝒂𝒙

or
2π 𝝅
𝜴𝑨 = 𝟎
𝑭 (𝜽, ∅)𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝟎 𝒏
𝒅𝜽 𝒅∅
𝑭(𝛉,∅)
𝑭𝒏 (𝛉, ∅) =
𝑭(𝛉,∅)⃒𝒎𝒂𝒙

The Beam Solid Angle 𝜴𝑨 is defined as the solid angle through which all
the power of the antenna would flow if its radiation intensity is constant
(and equal to the maximum value of U) for all angles within 𝜴𝑨
18
2.6.1 Directional Patterns

𝟒𝝅 𝟒𝝅 𝟒𝝅 𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝝅 𝟐 𝟒𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟑
𝑫𝒐 = ≈ = = (Kraus Equation)
𝜴𝑨 𝚯𝒓𝟏 ∙𝚯𝒓𝟐 𝚯𝒅𝟏 ∙𝚯𝒅𝟐 𝚯𝒅𝟏 ∙𝚯𝒅𝟐
19
The approximated beam solid angle:
𝜴𝑨 ≈ 𝚯𝒓𝟏 ∙ 𝚯𝒓𝟐
𝚯𝒓𝟏 (𝚯𝒅𝟏 ) = 𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒇 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒃𝒆𝒂𝒎𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉 𝒊𝒏 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 𝒓𝒂𝒅 (𝒅𝒆𝒈)
𝚯𝒓𝟐 )𝚯𝒅𝟐 ) = 𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒇 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒃𝒆𝒂𝒎𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉 𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 ⊥ 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 (𝒓𝒂𝒅)(𝒅𝒆𝒈)

Example: The radiation intensity of the major lobe of many antennas can be
adequately represented by:
𝑼 = 𝑩𝒐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟒 𝜽
The radiation intensity exists only in the upper hemisphere (0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋∕2, 0 ≤ 𝜙 ≤ 2𝜋),
Find: a) beam solid angle; exact and approximate.
b) maximum directivity; exact and approximate (using Kraus Equation)
20
Solution: The half-power point of the pattern occurs at 𝜃 = 32.765 o . Thus the beamwidth
in the 𝜃 direction is 65.53 o or 𝜣𝒓𝟏 =1.1437 rad
Since the pattern is independent
of the 𝜙 coordinate, then the
𝚯𝒓𝟏 = 𝚯𝒓𝟐 =1.1437 rad
a) Beam solid angle:

The exact Value:

2π 𝜋
𝜴𝑨 = 𝟎
𝐹 (𝜃, ∅)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝟎 𝑛
𝑑𝜃 𝑑∅
π
2π
𝜴𝑨 = 𝟎
𝟐
𝟎
𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑∅
𝟐𝝅
=
𝟓
steradians
The Approximate value:
𝜴𝑨 = 𝛩𝑟1 . 𝛩𝑟2 =1.308 steradians 21
b) Directivity 𝑫𝒐
𝟒𝝅 𝟒𝝅(𝟓)
Exact: 𝑫𝒐 = = = 10(dimensionless) = 10 dB
𝜴𝑨 𝟐𝝅
𝟒𝝅 𝟒𝝅
Approximate: 𝑫𝒐 ≈ = = 9.61 (dimensionless) = 9.83 dB
𝜴𝑨 𝟏.𝟑𝟎𝟖

Tai and Pereira Equation for Approximate Maximum Directivity 𝑫𝒐 :

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏𝟔 𝒍𝒏𝟐 𝟏𝟔 𝒍𝒏𝟐
= + ,where 𝑫𝟏 ≈ 𝟐 and 𝑫𝟐 ≈
𝑫𝒐 𝟐 𝑫𝟏 𝑫𝟐 𝚯𝒓𝟏 𝚯𝒓𝟐 𝟐

𝟑𝟐 𝒍𝒏𝟐 𝟐𝟐.𝟏𝟖𝟏 𝟕𝟐.𝟖𝟏𝟓

𝑫𝒐 ≈ 𝟐 𝟐 = 𝟐 𝟐 = 𝟐 𝟐 (Tai and Pereira Equation)
𝚯𝒓𝟏 +𝚯𝒓𝟐 𝚯𝒓𝟏 +𝚯𝒓𝟐 𝚯𝒅𝟏 +𝚯𝒅𝟐
22