Diffraction

Dr. P. G. MUSRIF
Unit I Wave Optics
Interference - Introduction to electromagnetic waves and electromagnetic spectrum -
Interference in thin film of uniform thickness (with derivation) - Interference in thin film
wedge shape (qualitative) - Applications of interference: testing optical flatness, anti-
reflection coating

Diffraction - Diffraction of light - Diffraction at a single slit, conditions for principal maxima
and minima, diffraction pattern - Diffraction grating, conditions for principal maxima and
minima starting from resultant amplitude equations, diffraction pattern - Rayleigh’s criterion
for resolution, resolving power of telescope and grating

Polarization - Polarization of light, Malus law - Double refraction, Huygen’s theory of double
refraction Applications of polarization: LCD
 Diffraction of light
The bending of light at the edge of
an obstacle and hence its
encroachment into the region of
geometrical shadow is known as
“diffraction of light”.
 Two Set-up For Diffraction
Fresnel Diffraction
1:If the source of light and screen is at a
finite distance from the obstacle, then the
diffraction called Fresnel diffraction.
2:The corresponding rays are not parallel.
3:The wavefronts falling on the obstacle
are not plane.
Fraunhofer diffraction
1:If the source of light and screen is at
infinite distance from the obstacle then
the diffraction is called Fraunhofer
diffraction.
2:The corresponding rays are not parallel.
3:The wavefronts falling on the obstacle
are planes.
 Single slit Diffraction
For D >>> a we can assume

𝛌
𝟐
sin𝜃= 𝑎
2
Y

For very small 𝜃, we can write

𝒀
sin𝜃=𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑫
𝒀 𝛌
=𝒂
𝑫
total width of central maxima is 2𝒀
𝐃𝛌 𝟐𝐃𝛌
𝒀= 𝑾 = 𝟐𝒀 =
𝒂 𝒂
Single slit Diffraction

𝛌
𝟐
sin𝜃= 𝑎
4
 Single slit Diffraction

−𝟓𝛌/2a −𝟑𝛌/2a 𝟑𝛌/2a 𝟓𝛌/2a

First Maxima
𝟑𝛌 𝟓𝛌 𝟕𝛌 First Minima
asin𝜃= 𝟐
, 𝟐
, 𝟐

𝛌
asin𝜃 = (2m+1) m = 1, 2, 3 … Maxima bright fringes
𝟐
A wave front is defined as a surface of constant
phase of waves.

A wavelet is a wave-like oscillation with

amplitude which starts at zero, increases, and
then decreases back to zero.
 Fraunhofer Single slit Diffraction
As we can see all the plane wave front is getting incident on small slit of length a
and According Huygens theory, each point on the wave front is to be considered as
source of the secondary wavelets
Fraunhofer Single slit Diffraction
 Fraunhofer Single slit Diffraction 𝐸θ
= 𝑅𝑆𝑖𝑛α ----(1)
2
For sector 𝑂𝑃𝑄
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑐
Ф=
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
𝐸𝑚
Ф= Ф = 2α
𝑅
𝐸𝑚
𝑅=
2α

Put in equation 1
Ф 𝐸θ 𝐸𝑚
α = = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ----(1)
2 2 2α
2𝜋
Ф= X (path difference ) 𝜋
𝛌 α = 𝑎𝑆𝑖𝑛θ 𝑆𝑖𝑛α
𝛌 𝐸θ = 𝐸𝑚 α
𝑋
𝑆𝑖𝑛θ =
𝑎 From Δ PUO This is the resultant amplitude
at an angle θ
𝑋 = 𝑎𝑆𝑖𝑛θ 𝐸θ Where α = 𝜋 𝑎𝑆𝑖𝑛θ
𝑆𝑖𝑛α = 2 𝛌
2𝜋 𝑅
Ф= 𝑎𝑆𝑖𝑛θ
𝛌
Fraunhofer Single slit Diffraction

Now squaring amplitude equation

2
𝑆𝑖𝑛α
𝐸θ 2 = 𝐸𝑚 2
α
𝐼 = 𝐸2
2
𝑆𝑖𝑛α
𝐼θ = 𝐼𝑚
α

This is the resultant intensity

at an angle θ
Principle maxima Minima

𝑆𝑖𝑛α
𝐼θ =
𝑆𝑖𝑛α
𝐼𝑚 α 𝐼θ = 𝐼𝑚 α

𝐼θ will be maximum if α = 0 𝐼θ will be minimum if sinα = 0

We have 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 α is not equal to 0

𝜋
α = 𝑎𝑆𝑖𝑛θ n= ±1, ±2, ±3,…
𝛌 α =n𝜋
𝜋
if α = 0 then 𝛌 𝑎𝑆𝑖𝑛θ = 0 𝜋
𝑎𝑆𝑖𝑛θ = n 𝜋
𝛌
θ=0
𝑎𝑆𝑖𝑛θ = n 𝛌
Thus principal maximum is formed n= ±1, ±2, ±3,…
along the incident direction and
hence is also called central maximum Thus minimum intensities are formed
at an angles given by

n𝛌
θ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1
𝑎
 Secondary maxima

Between any two adjacent minimum intensities there will be maximum intensity called
1
Secondary maxima. These secondary maxima are formed for α = (n+2) 𝜋

𝜋 1
α= 𝑎𝑆𝑖𝑛θ 𝑆𝑖𝑛(n+ 2 ) 𝜋 = ±1
𝛌

𝜋 1 1 2
𝑎𝑆𝑖𝑛θ = (n+ ) 𝜋 𝑆𝑖𝑛(n+ 2 ) 𝜋 = 1
𝛌 2

1 𝐼θ 1 n= 1, 2, 3,…
𝑎𝑆𝑖𝑛θ = (n+ )𝛌 =
2 𝐼𝑚 1 2
As n+ 2 𝜋2
2
𝑆𝑖𝑛α
𝐼θ = 𝐼𝑚
α
𝐼θ
= 0.045, 0.0162, 0.0083
1 2 𝐼𝑚
𝑆𝑖𝑛(n+ 2 ) 𝜋
𝐼θ = 𝐼𝑚
1 Thus the intensity of secondary maxima decreases rapidly
(n+ 2 ) 𝜋

n= ±1, ±2, ±3,…

 0.045
0.0162
0.0083

−𝟓𝛌/2a −𝟑𝛌/2a 𝟑𝛌/2a 𝟓𝛌/2a

First Maxima
First Minima
 Diffraction Grating
• The diffracting grating consists of many equally
spaced parallel slits
– A typical grating contains several thousand lines
per centimeter
• The intensity of the pattern on the screen is the
result of the combined effects of interference and
diffraction

6000 cm-1
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑆𝑖𝑛θ = 1 𝛌

2.54
(𝑎 + 𝑏) =
15000
 Diffraction Grating
Expand our previous discussion of
diffraction from a single slit;
diffraction grating is an array of N slits
with each slit having width “b” (b
separation between slits) and canter
to canter distance is “a”. We consider
N identical slits, illuminated by an
incident plane wave and determine
the superposition field and irradiance
at an observation point P located far
from the slits
 Diffraction Grating
Let “a” is the width ie. separation
between slits and “b” is the centre to
centre distance between the slits and
We consider N identical slits,
illuminated by an incident plane wave
and incident on diffraction grating and
observe the phenomenon
In this case we will directly start from resultant amplitude equation
a
2𝜋
Ф= X (path difference ) b
𝛌
(a+b) θ

𝑋 X
𝑆𝑖𝑛θ = Ф
(𝑎 + 𝑏) β= 𝟐

𝑋 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑆𝑖𝑛θ 𝜋
β = 𝛌 (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑆𝑖𝑛θ
2𝜋 1
Ф= (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑆𝑖𝑛θ 𝑁= = Total number of lines per unit length
𝛌 (𝑎+𝑏)
 Diffraction grating, conditions for principal maxima and minima
starting from resultant amplitude equations
We have 𝜋
β = 𝛌 (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑆𝑖𝑛θ
The Resultant Amplitude for
diffraction grating can be written as 𝜋
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑆𝑖𝑛θ = ± m𝜋
𝛌
𝑆𝑖𝑛α 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑁β
𝐸θ = 𝐸𝑚
α 𝑆𝑖𝑛β (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑆𝑖𝑛θ = ± m 𝛌
The corresponding intensity for
diffraction grating can be written as 𝑆𝑖𝑛α 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑁β 0
𝐸θ =
𝑆𝑖𝑛2 α 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝑁β α 𝑆𝑖𝑛β
0
𝐼θ = 𝐼𝑚
α2 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 β Indeterminate
L Hospital’s Rule form
Condition for Principal Maxima 𝑆𝑖𝑛α 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑁β
Remains constant 𝐸θ is dependant on this term 𝐸θ =
α 𝑆𝑖𝑛β
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑁β 𝑑(𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑁β)
𝑆𝑖𝑛α 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑁β ෍ = ෍
𝐸θ = 𝑆𝑖𝑛β 𝑑(𝑆𝑖𝑛β)
α 𝑆𝑖𝑛β β→=± m𝜋 β→=± m𝜋
For 𝐸θ to be maxima 𝑆𝑖𝑛β must be zero
𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑁(𝑚𝜋)
If 𝑆𝑖𝑛β 0 = ෍
𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑚𝜋)
β = ± m𝜋 Where m = 0, 1, 2, .. β→=± m𝜋
 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑁β 𝑁(−1)
෍ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑚𝜋) = -1
𝑆𝑖𝑛β (−1)
β→=± m𝜋
Condition for Minima
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑁β 𝑆𝑖𝑛α 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑁β
=𝑁 𝐸θ = 𝐸𝑚
𝑆𝑖𝑛β α 𝑆𝑖𝑛β

𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝑁β 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑁β 0
2
= 𝑁2
𝑆𝑖𝑛 β
Nβ = ± m𝜋

𝑆𝑖𝑛α N
𝜋
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑆𝑖𝑛θ = ± m𝜋
𝐸θ = 𝐸𝑚 𝑁 𝛌
α

𝑆𝑖𝑛2 α 2
𝐼θ = 𝐼𝑚 𝑁 N(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑆𝑖𝑛θ = ± m 𝛌
α2
m can have all integer value excpet
𝐼θ = 𝑁2 ∗ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑡 m = 0, N, 2N, 3N ..

Otherwise it would become condition for

Principal maxima
 Rayleigh's criterion

• To decide when two images are resolved, the

following criterion is used:
• When the central maximum of one image falls
on the first minimum another image, the images
are said to be just resolved.
• This limiting condition of resolution is known as
Rayleigh's criterion.
• If the two sources are separated enough to keep their central
maxima from overlapping, their images can be distinguished
and are said to be resolved.
• If the sources are close together, however, the two central
maxima overlap and the images are not resolved.
Limit of resolution : The smallest separation (Linear of
angular) between two point objects at which they
appear just separated is called the limit of resolution of
an optical instrument.
Resolving Power: The reciprocal of the limit of
resolution of an optical instrument is known as
resolving power of that instrument
 𝑠1 𝑠2 𝑠1 𝑠2
𝑠1 𝑠2

Slit Slit Slit

θ θ θ

Just resolved Resolved

unresolved
• From Rayleigh's criterion, we can determine
the minimum angular separation, θmin ,
subtended by the sources at the slit so that
their images are just resolved.
• the first minimum in a single-slit diffraction
pattern occurs at the angle for which
sin θ = λ / a
where a is the width of the slit. According to
Rayleigh's criterion, this expression gives the
smallest angular separation for which the
two images are resolved.
• Because λ « a in most situations,
• sin θ is small and we can use the
approximation
• sin θ ≈ θ . Therefore, the limiting angle of
resolution for a slit of width a is
• θmin = λ / a
• where θmin is expressed in radians.
Hence, the angle subtended by the two
sources at the slit must be greater than λ
/ a if the images are to be resolved.
• The diffraction pattern of a circular
aperture consists of a central circular bright
disk surrounded by progressively fainter
rings. The limiting angle of resolution of
the circular aperture is:
𝛌
𝜽 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟐
𝑫
• Where D is the diameter of the aperture.
 Resolving Power of Telescope

• TELESCOPE
Telescope is used to see distant objects and therefore
the amount of details given by it depends on the angle
subtended at its objective by the two point objects.
RESOLVING POWER OF A TELESCOPE
The resolving power of a telescope is defined as the
reciprocal of smallest angle subtended at the objective
by the two distant objects which can be seen just as
separate in the telescope.
R.P=1/ θ 𝛌
𝜽 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟐
𝑫

𝑫
R.P=
𝟏.𝟐𝟐∗𝛌
 Resolving Power of Gratings
It is defined as the capacity of a grating to form separate diffraction maxima of two
wavelengths which are very close to each other

Let AB represent the surface of a plane transmission grating having grating

element (a+b) and N total number of slits. Let a beam of light having two
wavelengths 𝛌 and 𝛌+d 𝛌 is normally incident on the grating. Let P1 is nth primary
maximum of a spectral line of wavelength 𝛌 at an angle of diffraction 𝜽 and
𝜽 +d𝜽 .
According to Rayleigh criterion, the two wavelengths will be resolved if the
principal maximum 𝛌+d𝛌 of nth order in a direction 𝜽 +d𝜽 falls over the first
minimum of nth order in the same direction 𝜽 +d𝜽 . Let us consider the first
minimum of l of nth order in the direction 𝜽 +d𝜽 as below.

The principal maximum of 𝛌 in the 𝜽 direction is given by

(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑆𝑖𝑛θ = m 𝛌 ………(1)

The equation of minima is (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ± m 𝜆 where m takes all integers except 0,

N, 2N, …, nN, because for these values of m, the condition for maxima is satisfied.
Thus first minimum adjacent to nth principal maximum in the direction 𝜃 +d𝜃 can be
obtained by substituting the value of m as n(N+1) Therefore, the first minimum in the
direction 𝜃 +d𝜃 of is given by is given by

𝑁(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜽 +d𝜽) = m(N+1)𝛌 ………(1)

1
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜽 +d𝜽) = (m+ 𝑁 )𝛌 ………(2)

The principle maxima of 𝛌+d𝛌 in the direction 𝜽 +d𝜽 can be written as

(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜽 +d𝜽) = m (𝛌+d𝛌)………(3)
 Resolving Power of Gratings

Now comparing equation 2 and 3 we get

1
(m+ 𝑁 )𝛌 = m (𝛌+d𝛌)

𝛌
m𝛌+ 𝑁 = m 𝛌+md𝛌)

𝛌
= md𝛌
𝑁

𝛌
= mN …….(4)
d𝛌

Thus the resolving power is directly

proportional to
(i) The order of the spectrum ‘m’
(ii) The total number of lines on the grating ‘N’
 Problems
1. A slit width a is illuminated by white light. For what value of a will the first maximum for
Red light fall at an angle 30 ? Wavelength of red light is 6500 A

θ = 30 𝑛=1 𝛌 = 6500 A =6500 ∗ 10−8 cm

asin𝜃 =n 𝛌

𝑛𝛌
a=
sin𝜃

1 ∗ 6500 ∗ 10−8
a=
𝑠𝑖𝑛30

a = 1.3 * 10−4 cm
2. A single slit diffraction pattern is formed using white light. For what wavelength of
light does the second maximum coincide with third minimum for wavelength 4000 A
3. Find the half angular width of the central maximum in the Fraunhofer diffraction
pattern of a slit of width12 ∗ 10−5 cm, when illuminated by light of wavelength 6000 A

𝒂 = 12 ∗ 10−5 𝑛 = 1 for first minima 𝛌 = 6000 A =6000 ∗ 10−8 cm

asin𝜃 =n 𝛌

12 ∗ 10−5 sin𝜃 =1* 6000 ∗ 10−8

θ = 30
4. In plane transmission grating, the angle of diffraction for second order principle
maxima for the wavelength 5 ∗ 10−5 cm is 30. Calculate the number of lines per cm
of grating surface

𝑚=2 𝛌 = 5 ∗ 10−5 cm θ = 30

(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑆𝑖𝑛θ = m 𝛌 1
𝑁 = 2∗10−4

m𝛌
𝑎+𝑏 =
𝑆𝑖𝑛θ 𝑁 = 5000

2∗5 ∗ 10−5
𝑎+𝑏 =
𝑆𝑖𝑛30

𝑎 + 𝑏 = 2 ∗ 10−4

1
Total number of lines per unit length = 𝑁 = (𝑎+𝑏)
5. What is the longest wavelength that can be observed in the third order for
transmission grating having 7000 lines per cm? Assume normal incident

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ = 1 𝑁 = 7000 m=3

1
𝑁= 𝑐𝑚
(𝑎 + 𝑏)

1 𝛌 = 4.762 *10−5 cm
𝑎+𝑏 =
7000
𝛌 = 4762 A
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑆𝑖𝑛θ = m 𝛌

1
∗ 1=3𝛌
7000

1
𝛌 = 3∗7000
5. Monochromatic light of wavelength 6.56∗ 10−5 cm falls normally on grating of 2 cm
wide. The first order spectrum is produced at an angle of 18 14’ from normal. What is
the total number of lines on the grating?

m=3 𝛌 = 6.56 ∗ 10−5 cm θ = 18 14’

(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑆𝑖𝑛θ = m 𝛌

m𝛌
𝑎+𝑏 =
𝑆𝑖𝑛θ

3∗6.56 ∗ 10−5
𝑎+𝑏 =
𝑆𝑖𝑛18 14’

𝑎 + 𝑏 = 2.0966 *10−4
What is the distance between two slits if light of wavelength 750nm makes a
pattern on a wall 2.5m away with bright fringes spaced 20mm apart?

𝐃𝛌
𝒀= 𝒂