Introduction to Circuit Theory

Sinusoids and Phasors

2015/11/19

Jieh-Tsorng Wu

National Chiao-Tung University

Department of Electronics Engineering
 Outline
1. Sinusoids
2. Phasors
3. Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements
4. Impedance and Admittance
5. Kirchhoff’s Laws in the Frequency Domain
6. Impedance Combinations
7. Applications

9. Sinusoids and Phasors 2 Circuit Theory; Jieh-Tsorng Wu

 Sinusoids and AC Circuits
 A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine function.
 A sinusoidal current is usually referred to as alternating current (ac).
 Circuits driven by sinusoidal current or voltage sources are called ac circuits.
 Why sinusoid is important in circuit analysis?
 Nature itself is characteristically sinusoidal.
 A sinusoidal signal is easy to generate and transmit.
 Through Fourier analysis, any practical periodic signal can be represented by
a sum of sinusoids.
 A sinusoid is easy to handle mathematically.

9. Sinusoids and Phasors 3 Circuit Theory; Jieh-Tsorng Wu

 Sinusoids

v(t ) = Vm sin ωt
ω = Angular Frequency (radians/sec)
Vm = Amplitude
2π 1 ω
=
T = Period (sec) f = = = Frequency (hertz, Hz)
ω T 2π

A periodic function is one that satisfies 𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 for all t and all integers n.

9. Sinusoids and Phasors 4 Circuit Theory; Jieh-Tsorng Wu

 Sinusoids with Different Phases

v(t ) = Vm sin (ωt + φ )

φ = Phase (radians or degrees)
2π
=
1 radian ×1 degree
360°
360°
=
1 degree ×1 radian
2π
φ (Radian)
=∆t ×T
2π
φ (Degree)
= ×T
360°
v2 leads v1 by φ , or v1 lags v2 by φ .
If φ = 0, v1 and v2 are in phase.
If φ ≠ 0, v1 and v2 are out of phase.
9. Sinusoids and Phasors 5 Circuit Theory; Jieh-Tsorng Wu
 Trigonometric Identities

sin ( A=
± B ) sin A cos B ± cos A sin B
cos ( A ± B ) =
cos A cos B  sin A sin B

sin (ωt ± 180° ) = − sin ωt

cos (ωt ± 180° ) = − cos ωt
sin (ωt ± 90° ) = ± cos ωt
cos (ωt ± 90° ) =  sin ωt

9. Sinusoids and Phasors 6 Circuit Theory; Jieh-Tsorng Wu

 A Graphical Approach for Sinusoids

cos (ωt − 90° ) = sin ωt ωt 5cos (ωt + 53.1° )

3cos ωt − 4sin =
C cos (ωt − θ )
A cos ωt + B sin ωt =
C = A2 + B 2
B
θ = tan −1

A
9. Sinusoids and Phasors 7 Circuit Theory; Jieh-Tsorng Wu
 Complex Number and Phasor
 A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and the phase of a
sinusoid.
 Sinusoids are easily expressed by using phasors
 Phasors provide a simple means of analyzing linear circuits excited by sinusoidal
sources.

z= x + jy Rectangular Form
= r ∠φ Polar Form
= re jφ Exponential Form
= r ( cos φ + j sin φ )
y
=r x +y
2 2
φ = tan −1

x
e jφ = cos φ + j sin φ

9. Sinusoids and Phasors 8 Circuit Theory; Jieh-Tsorng Wu

 Mathematical Operation of Complex Numbers
z =x + jy =re jφ =∠
r φ
z1 =x1 + jy1 =r1e jφ1 =∠
r1 φ1 z2 =x2 + jy2 =r2 e jφ2 =∠
r2 φ2
Addition: z1 + z2 = ( x1 + x2 ) + j ( y1 + y2 )
Substraction: z1 − z2 = ( x1 − x2 ) + j ( y1 − y2 )
Multiplication: z1 z2 = ( x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + j ( x1 y2 + x2 y1 )
: z1 z2 = r1e jφ1 r2 e jφ2 = r1r2 e j (φ1 +φ2 ) = r1r2 ∠ (φ1 + φ2 )
z1 r1 j (φ1 −φ2 ) r1
Division: = e = ∠ (φ1 − φ2 )
z2 r2 r2
1 1 − jφ 1
Reciprocal: = e = ∠ ( −φ )
z r r
Square Root: =
z re jφ /2= r ∠ (φ / 2 )
Complex Conjugate: z * = x − jy = re − jφ = r ∠ ( −φ )

9. Sinusoids and Phasors 9 Circuit Theory; Jieh-Tsorng Wu

 Phasor Representation of a Sinusoid

e ± jφ = cos φ ± j sin φ Re ( e jφ ) sin φ =

⇔ cos φ = Im ( e jφ )

Vm cos (ωt + φ ) = Re Vm e
v(t ) = ( j (ωt +φ )
) Re (Vm e jφ e jωt ) = Re ( Ve jωt )
=
V = Vm e jφ= Vm ∠φ = Phasor Representation of v(t )

9. Sinusoids and Phasors 10 Circuit Theory; Jieh-Tsorng Wu

 Phasor Diagram

V = Vm ∠φ

I = I m∠ − θ

9. Sinusoids and Phasors 11 Circuit Theory; Jieh-Tsorng Wu

 Sinusoid-Phasor Transformation

 v(t) is instantaneous or time-domain representation, V is the frequency or phasor-

domain representation.
 v(t) is time dependent, V is not.
 v(t) is always real with no complex term, V is generally complex.
 Phasor analysis applies only when frequency is constant; when it is applied to
two or more sinusoid signals only if they have the same frequency. .

9. Sinusoids and Phasors 12 Circuit Theory; Jieh-Tsorng Wu

 Sinusoid-Phasor Transformation
v(t ) =Vm cos (ωt + φ ) = Re ( Ve jωt ) where V =Vm e jφ =Vm ∠φ
dv(t ) d
= Vm cos (ωt + φ )  =−ωVm sin(ωt + φ ) =ωVm cos(ωt + φ + 90°)
dt dt
=
Re ω e j 90° (Vm e jφ )e jωt  Re ( jω Ve jωt )
(ωVme jωt e jφ e j 90° ) Re =
± jφ 1
e =cos φ ± j sin φ j =e j 90°
=− j =e − j 90° j 2 =−1 =e + j180° = e − j180°
j
Sinusoid Phasor
Vm cos (ωt + φ )
v(t ) = V= Vm ∠φ
dv
= ωVm cos (ωt + φ + 90° ) jω V = ωVm ∠ (φ + 90° )
dt
Vm V Vm
∫ vdt = cos (ωt + φ − 90°)
ω
=
jω ω
∠ (φ − 90° )

9. Sinusoids and Phasors 13 Circuit Theory; Jieh-Tsorng Wu

 Phasor Examples
v=−4sin ( 30t + 50° ) =4 cos ( 30t + 50° + 90° ) ⇒ V =4∠ ( +50° + 90° ) =
4∠140°
V = −10∠30° = 10∠ ( 30° ± 180° ) = 10∠210° = 10∠ − 150° V
= (ωt + 210° ) 10 cos (ωt − 150° ) V
⇒ v(t ) 10 cos=
I = j ( 5 − j12 ) = j 5 + 12 = 13∠22.62° A ⇒ i (t ) = 13cos (ωt + 22.62° ) A
i1 (t ) = 4 cos (ωt + 30° ) i2 (t ) = 5 sin=
(ωt − 20° ) 5cos (ωt − 20° − 90° )
⇒ I1 = 4∠30° I 2 = 5∠ − 110°
⇒ I1 +=
I2 ( 3.464 + j 2 ) + ( −1.71 − j 4.698
= ) 1.754 − j 2.698
= 3.218∠ − 56.97°
⇒ + i2 (t ) 3.218cos (ωt − 56.97° )
i1 (t ) =
di I
4i + 8∫ idt − 3 = 50 cos ( 2t + 75° ) ⇒ 4I + 8 − 3 jω I = 50∠75° ω = 2
dt jω
 8 
⇒ I4+ − 3 jω  = I ( 4 − j 4 − j 6 ) =
50∠75°
 jω 
50∠75°
⇒ =
I = 4.642∠143.2° ⇒ i (= t ) 4.642 cos ( 2t + 143.2° )
4 − j10
9. Sinusoids and Phasors 14 Circuit Theory; Jieh-Tsorng Wu
 Phasor Relationship for Resistor

i =I m cos(ωt + φ ) ⇒ I =I m ∠φ
v = iR = RI m cos(ωt + φ ) ⇒ V = RI m ∠φ = RI

9. Sinusoids and Phasors 15 Circuit Theory; Jieh-Tsorng Wu

 Phasor Relationship for Inductor

i =I m cos(ωt + φ ) ⇒ I =I m ∠φ
di
v L = ω LI m cos(ωt + φ + 90°)
= ⇒ V= jω LI
dt

9. Sinusoids and Phasors 16 Circuit Theory; Jieh-Tsorng Wu

 Phasor Relationship for Capacitor

v=Vm cos(ωt + φ ) ⇒ V=Vm ∠φ

dv
i C = ωCVm cos(ωt + φ + 90°) ⇒ =
= I jωCV
dt

9. Sinusoids and Phasors 17 Circuit Theory; Jieh-Tsorng Wu

 Impedance and Admittance
V I 1
Impedance: Z = (Ω) Admittance: Y = (S) Z=
I V Y
V is the phasor voltage I is the phasor current

Element Impedance Admittance

1
R=Z R=Y
R
1
=
L ωL
Z j= Y
jω L
1
=
C Z = Y jωC
jωC

9. Sinusoids and Phasors 18 Circuit Theory; Jieh-Tsorng Wu

 Impedance and Admittance

V 1
Z = = =R + jX =Z ∠θ
I Y
= =
R Re ( Z ) Resistance= =
X Im ( Z ) Reactance
X
Z = R +X 2
θ = tan
2 −1
R= Z cos θ X = Z sin θ
R
I 1
Y= = = G + jB
V Z
G = Re ( Y ) = Conductance B = Im ( Y ) = Susceptance
R X G B
G= 2 B=
− 2 R= X=
− 2
R + X2 R +X 2
G +B
2 2
G + B2
 If X>0, Z is said to be inductive or lagging since current lags voltage.
 If X<0, Z is said to be capacitive or leading since current leads voltage.

9. Sinusoids and Phasors 19 Circuit Theory; Jieh-Tsorng Wu

 Frequency-Dependent Impedance of Inductor and Capacitor

1
Z L = jω L ZC =
jωC

ω =0 ⇒ Z L =0
ω → ∞ ⇒ ZL → ∞

ω= 0 ⇒ ZC → ∞
ω → ∞ ⇒ Z C =0

9. Sinusoids and Phasors 20 Circuit Theory; Jieh-Tsorng Wu

 KVL and KCL in the Phasor Domain

v1 + v2 + ⋅⋅⋅ + vn = 0
Vm1 cos(ωt + θ1 ) + Vm 2 cos(ωt + θ 2 ) + ⋅⋅⋅ + Vmn cos(ωt + θ n ) = 0
⇒ Re(Vm1e jθ1 e jωt ) + Re(Vm 2 e jθ2 e jωt ) + ⋅⋅⋅ + Re(Vmn e jθn e jωt ) = 0
( )
⇒ Re  Vm1e jθ1 + Vm 2 e jθ2 +  + Vmn e jθn e jωt  =
0

⇒ Vk = Vmk e jθk⇒ Re ( V1 + V2 +  + Vn ) e jωt  =

0
⇒ V1 + V2 +  + Vn = 0

i1 + i2 +  + in =0
⇒ I1 + I 2 +  + I n =
0

9. Sinusoids and Phasors 21 Circuit Theory; Jieh-Tsorng Wu

 Series-Connected Impedances and Voltage Divider

V Zk
Z= = Z1 + Z 2 +  + Z N =
Vk V ×
Z1 + Z 2 +  + Z N
eq
I

9. Sinusoids and Phasors 22 Circuit Theory; Jieh-Tsorng Wu

 Parallel-Connected Impedances and Current Divider

I Yk
=
Y = Y1 + Y2 +  + YN =
Ik I ×
Y1 + Y2 +  + YN
eq
V
1 1 1 1
= + ++ Z eq = Z1‖Z 2‖‖Z N
Z eq Z1 Z 2 ZN

9. Sinusoids and Phasors 23 Circuit Theory; Jieh-Tsorng Wu

 Y-∆ Transformations

Y-Δ Conversion Δ-Y Conversion

Z1Z 2 + Z 2 Z3 + Z3 Z1 Zb Z c
Za = Z1 =
Z1 Z a + Zb + Z c
Z1Z 2 + Z 2 Z3 + Z3 Z1 Zc Za
Zb = Z2 =
Z2 Z a + Zb + Z c
Z1Z 2 + Z 2 Z3 + Z3 Z1 Z a Zb
Zc = Z3 =
Z3 Z a + Zb + Z c
9. Sinusoids and Phasors 24 Circuit Theory; Jieh-Tsorng Wu
 Example 1

ZR = R
Z L = jω L
1
ZC =
jωC

=
Zin Z 2mF + Z3Ω+10mF || Z8Ω+0.2H
1  1 
= + 3+  || ( 8 + jω ⋅ 0.2 ) ω = 50 rad/sec
jω ⋅ 2m  jω ⋅10m 
( j10 ) + ( 3 − j 2 ) || (8 + j10 )
=−

=
− j10 +
( 3 − j 2 )( 8 + j10 )
=
3.22 − j11.07 Ω
( 3 − j 2 ) + (8 + j10 )
9. Sinusoids and Phasors 25 Circuit Theory; Jieh-Tsorng Wu
 Example 2

1
Vs = 20∠ − 15° ω = 4 ⇒ ZC = = − j 25 Ω Z L = jω L = j 20 Ω
jωC
j 20 || − j 25 j100
Vo = × Vs × ( 20∠ − 15° )
60 + [ j 20 || − j 25] 60 + j100
= ( 0.8575∠30.96° ) × ( 20∠ − 15° )
= 17.15∠15.96° V
vo (t ) 17.15cos ( 4t + 15.96° ) V
=
9. Sinusoids and Phasors 26 Circuit Theory; Jieh-Tsorng Wu
 Example 3
j 4(2 − j 4)
Z= = 1.6 + j 0.8
j4 + 2 − j4 + 8
an

j 4(8)
=
Zbn = j 3.2
10
8(2 − j 4)
Z=cn = 1.6 − j 3.2
10
Z= 12 + Z an
+ ( Zbn − j 3) || ( Z cn + j 6 + 8 )
= 13.6 + j1= 13.64∠4.204° Ω
V 50∠0°
=
I =
Z 13.64∠4.204°
= 3.666∠ − 4.204° A

9. Sinusoids and Phasors 27 Circuit Theory; Jieh-Tsorng Wu

 Phase-Leading Phase Shifter

R jω RC jω RC (1 − jω RC ) ω RC (ω RC + j1)
Vo = Vi = Vi = Vi Vi
R+
1 1 + jω RC 1+ ω R C
2 2 2
1+ ω R C
2 2 2

jωC
 ω RC −1  1  −1  1 
 ∠ tan   iV θ = tan  
 1+ ω R C
2 2 2
 ω RC    ω R C 
Vo Vo  1  1 Vo
(ω = 0 ) = 0∠90° ω = = ∠45° (ω = ∞ ) = 1∠0°
Vi Vi  RC  2 Vi
9. Sinusoids and Phasors 28 Circuit Theory; Jieh-Tsorng Wu
 Phase-Lagging Phase Shifter

1
jωC 1 1 − jω RC
Vo = Vi = Vi Vi
R+
1 1 + jω RC 1+ ω R C
2 2 2

jωC
 1 
 ∠ − tan (ω RC )  Vi
−1
θ = − tan −1 (ω RC )
 1+ ω R C 
2 2 2

Vo Vo  1  1 Vo
(ω = 0 ) = 1∠0° ω = = ∠ − 45° (ω = ∞ ) = 0∠ − 90°
Vi Vi  RC  2 Vi
9. Sinusoids and Phasors 29 Circuit Theory; Jieh-Tsorng Wu
 Phase Shifter Example

20 ( 20 − j 20 )
20 || ( 20 − j 20 ) =
Z= =
12 − j 4
20 + ( 20 − j 20 )
Z 12 − j 4  2 
V= V= V=  ∠45°  Vi
Z − j 20 12 − j 24
1 i i
 3 
20  2   2  2  1 
V= V=  ∠45°  V=  ∠ 45°   ∠ 45° =
 i 
V ∠90°  Vi
20 − j 20
o 1 1
 2   2  3  3 
9. Sinusoids and Phasors 30 Circuit Theory; Jieh-Tsorng Wu
 AC Bridge

V1 = V2
Z2 Zx
⇒ Vs = Vs
Z1 + Z 2 Z3 + Z x
Z2 Zx
⇒ =
Z1 + Z 2 Z3 + Z x
⇒ Z 2 Z3 =
Z1Z x
Z1 Z3 Z1 Z 2
⇒= =
Z 2 Z x Z3 Z x
Z2
⇒ Z x = Z3
Z1
The bridge is balanced when no current flows through the meter, i.e., V1=V2.

9. Sinusoids and Phasors 31 Circuit Theory; Jieh-Tsorng Wu

 AC Bridges as L/C Meters

R1 jω Ls R2 R1 1/ ( jωCs ) R1
= ⇒ L= Ls = ⇒
= Cx Cs
R2 jω Lx
x
R1 R2 1/ ( jωCx ) R2

9. Sinusoids and Phasors 32 Circuit Theory; Jieh-Tsorng Wu