2.1.

4 Field Regions
There are three regions surrounding an antenna:
1-Reactive near-field region.
a-For most antennas, the outer boundary at a distance R < 0.62 𝑫𝟑 /λ from the
antenna surface.
b-For very short dipole, the outer boundary at a distance R < λ/2π
2-Radiating near-field (Fresnel) region.
2𝑫𝟐 /λ > R ≥ 0.62 𝑫𝟑 /λ
3-Far-field (Fraunhofer) region.
R ≥ 2𝑫𝟐 /λ
2.2.5 Radian and Steradian
A-The Radian [rad]
One radian: is defined as the plane angle with its vertex at the center of a circle of
radius r that is subtended by an arc whose length is r (The measure of a plane angle)

𝑨𝒓𝒄 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
Plane angle 𝜽 =
𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔

𝑪 𝟐𝝅𝒓
For full circle 𝜽𝑪 = = = 2𝝅 [rad]
𝒓 𝒓
C = Circle circumference
r = Circle radius
B-The Steradian [sr]
One steradian: is defined as the solid angle with its vertex at the center of a sphere
of radius r that is subtended by a spherical surface area equal to that of a square with
each side of length r (The measure of a solid angle)

𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂

Solid angle 𝜴 =
𝒔𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔

𝑨 𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐
For full sphere 𝜴𝑻 = = = 4𝝅[sr]
𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟐
A = Total surface area of the sphere
r = Sphere radius

(b) Steradian
Here, the infinitesimal area dA on the surface of a sphere of radius r is give by:

𝒅𝑨 = 𝒓𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒅𝜽 𝒅∅ [𝑚2 ]

Therefore, the differential

element of solid angle dΩ of a
sphere is :
𝒅𝑨
𝒅𝜴 = 𝟐
𝒓

𝒅𝜴 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒅𝜽 𝒅∅ [sr]
Example: Find the solid angle 𝜴𝑨 (in square radians or steradians) of a spherical
cap on the surface of the sphere of radius r over the north-pole region defined by
spherical angles of:
0 ≤ 𝜽 ≤ 30o and 0 ≤ ∅ ≤ 360o .
a- The exact value
𝑟
b- The approximate value (using 𝛺𝐴 ≈ ΔΘ1 . ΔΘ2 , where ΔΘ1 & ΔΘ2 are two ┴
angular separations of the spherical cap passing through the north poles).
Solution:
360o 30o 2π 𝜋/6 𝜋/6
a- 𝛺𝐴 = 𝟎 𝟎
𝑑𝛺 = 𝟎 𝟎
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑∅ = 2𝜋[−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃]0 = 0.83566

𝜋 𝜋
b- 𝛺𝐴 ≈ ΔΘ1 . ΔΘ2 = ( ) . ( ) = 1.09662
3 3
The approximate beam solid angle is about 31.228% in error [Abs{(exact-Approx.)/exact}x100%]
2.3 Radiation Power Density
The quantity used to describe the power associated with an electromagnetic wave
is the instantaneous Poynting vector defined as:

𝒑 = 𝑾 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛; 𝒕 = 𝑬 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛; 𝒕 × 𝑯(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛; 𝒕)

𝑾 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛; 𝒕 is the instantaneous Poynting vector [W/𝑚2 ]

𝑬 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛: 𝒕 is the instantaneous electric-field intensity[V/m]
𝑯(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛; 𝒕) is the instantaneous magnetic-field intensity [A/m]
The total power crossing a closed surface is:

𝑷= 𝒔
𝑾. 𝒅s = 𝒔
𝑾. 𝒅𝒔 𝒏 [W]

𝑷 = instantaneous total power [W]

𝒏 = unit vector normal to the surface
ds = infinitesimal area of the closed surface [𝑚2 ]

The time average Poynting vector can be written as:

𝟏
𝑾𝒂𝒗𝒆 = Re[ 𝑬 × 𝑯∗ ]
 The average power density will be referred as radiation density, i.e.,

𝑾𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝑾𝒂𝒗𝒆
or,

The average power radiated by an antenna (total radiated power or

radiated power) can be written as:

𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝒔
𝑾 𝒓𝒂𝒅 . 𝒅s = 𝒔
𝑾 𝒂𝒗𝒆 . 𝒅𝒔 𝒏

𝟏
= 𝒔𝟐
Re [ 𝑬 × 𝑯∗ ]. 𝒅s [w]
where, the complex fields 𝐸 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛 and 𝐻 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛 are related to their
instantaneous counterparts 𝑬 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛; 𝒕 and 𝑯 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛; 𝒕 by:

𝑬 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛; 𝒕 = Re[ 𝐸 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛 𝒆𝒋𝝎𝒕 ]

𝑯 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛; 𝒕 = Re[ 𝐻 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛 𝒆𝒋𝝎𝒕 ]

Example: Determine the total radiated power by an antenna if the

radial component of radiated power density is given by:
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
𝑾𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝑊𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝒂𝒓 = 10 𝟐 𝒂𝒓
𝒓
Solution: 𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝒔
𝑾𝒓𝒂𝒅 . 𝒅𝒔 𝒏
2π 𝜋 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
10 𝒂𝒓 . 𝒓𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒅𝜽 𝒅∅ 𝒂𝒓 = 10𝝅𝟐 [W]
𝟎 𝟎 𝒓𝟐

A three-dimensional normalized plot 𝑾𝒓𝒂𝒅 at a distance of r = 1 m

2.4 Radiation Intensity (U)
Radiation intensity in a given direction is defined as “the power
radiated from an antenna per unit solid angle”. Mathematically it can
be is expressed as:

𝑼 = 𝒓𝟐 𝑾𝒓𝒂𝒅 [Watt/unit solid angle]

𝒓𝟐
𝑼 𝜽, ∅ = | 𝑬(𝐫, θ, ∅)|𝟐
𝟐𝜼
Example: Find the total radiated power using the intensity formula, given
that:

Solution: