AWP Introduction

AWP Introduction
Dr P Ashok Babu
Professor & Head
ECE Department
 AWP Introduction

 The electric charges are the sources of the Electro Magnetic (EM) fields. When these
sources are time varying, the EM waves propagate away from the sources and the
radiation takes place.
 The radiation of the electromagnetic wave into the space is effectively achieved by
using a conducting or dielectric structures called Antennas or Radiators. The
radiation can be considered as a process of transmitting energy.
 Antennas were commonly called “aerials” (still used in some countries) ex: japan-
middle sky wire. Antennas are the essential communication line for aircraft & ship
 A metallic device used for radiating or receiving radio waves
is called Antenna. According to IEEE standards, it is
defined as a means for radiating or receiving radio waves.
Thus antenna is regarded as a transmission between the free
space and a system used for launching an electromagnetic
waves.
 AWP Introduction

 The Antenna is a matching device between free space and wave launching system.

 Basically there are two types of antennas

i). Isotropic antenna (omni directional)
ii). Anisotropic antenna (directional)
 AWP Introduction

 Based on the function of antenna it is classified as

i). Transmitting antenna
ii). Receiving antenna
iii). Both
 Important types of Antennas are wire Antennas, travelling wave Antennas, slots and
aperture antennas, reflectors and lens.
AWP Introduction
 AWP Introduction

 The most commonly used antenna is the Dipole Antenna. It is made up of two
straight wires or conductors laying along the same axis. The exiting source is kept at
the centre. With a exciting source at the centre, a symmetrical dipole is produced.
 The loop antenna consists a single turn or many turns of wire forming loop. It is
generally excited by a generator directly. The field produced by a loop antenna is very
much similar to that produced by a small dipole.
 The Antenna with a wire in the form a helix backed by a ground plane is called
Helical Antenna.
 All the three types of Antenna mentioned above are wire
antennas which are extensively used in Aircrafts, Ships,
Automobiles etc.
 AWP Introduction

 In case of travelling wave antenna, the antenna is designed in such away that a
travelling wave in one direction is obtained.
 The velocity of this wave equals the velocity of light and it excites the wave in the
space in the same direction strongly. So the maximum directivity can be achieved.
 In case of travelling wave antenna, the antenna is designed in such away that a
travelling wave in one direction is obtained.
 The velocity of this wave equals the velocity of light and it excites the wave in the
space in the same direction strongly. So the maximum directivity can be achieved.
 A field across an aperture excites radiation in space. If an
aperture is small, it must be resonant to excite large amount of
power.
 But if an aperture is large, it need not resonant. The example of
aperture antenna with larger aperture is Horn antenna. The
aperture antenna is used for broadband signals.
 AWP Introduction

 For the microwave radiation, the parabolic reflectors are most common used. The
parabolic reflector is based on the principle that the electromagnetic waves are
reflected by a conducting sheet.
 The dish of the parabolic reflector acts as a mirror and it reflects the radiation from a
dipole horn placed at the focal point. This type of antenna is most suitable in Radars,
communications, astronomy etc.
 The antenna to be used with microwave integrated circuit may be placed on a
dielectric substrate. This is known as microstrip antenna.
 Horn antenna can be used with an integrated circuit. As
antenna is placed on a dielectric substrate, the integrated
circuit type antenna is also called Patch antenna.
 Radio wave

 A radio wave is a combination of a magnetic field at a right angle to an electric field.

 Both oscillate at a specific frequency, and they travel together in a direction
perpendicular to both fields .
 These electromagnetic fields move at the speed of light (about 300 million meters per
second or about 186,400 miles per second) through free space.
 A radio wave is a combination of a magnetic field at a right angle to an electric field.
 Radio wave

How does an antenna work?

 The antenna at the transmitter generates the radio wave.
 A voltage at the desired frequency is applied to the antenna.
 The voltage across the antenna elements and the current through them create the
electric and magnetic waves, respectively.
 At the receiver, the electromagnetic wave passing over the antenna induces a small
voltage. Thus, the antenna becomes the signal source for the receiver input.
 As the electrons (tiny particles inside atoms) in the electric current wiggle back and
forth along the antenna, they create invisible electromagnetic radiation in the form of
radio waves.
 These waves, partly electric and partly magnetic, travel out at
the speed of light, taking your radio program with them.
 ISOTROPIC RADIATORS

 A radiator which radiates uniformly in all directions.

 It is also called as isotropic source or omni directional radiator
 lossless radiator
 used as reference antenna
 The point source is an example of isotropic radiator. However, this isotropic
radiation is practically impossible, because every antenna radiates its energy with
some directivity.
 The isotropic radiation is nothing but Omni-directional radiation.
 It has a doughnut-shaped pattern when viewed in 3D and a
figure-of-eight pattern when viewed in 2D.
 ISOTROPIC RADIATORS

 The figures given shows the radiation pattern of an isotropic or Omni-directional

pattern.
 Figure 1 illustrates the doughnut shaped pattern in 3D and Figure 2 illustrates the
figure-of-eight pattern in 2D.
 It has a doughnut-shaped pattern when viewed in 3D and a figure-of-eight pattern
when viewed in 2D.
 Radiation of Single wire

 It is a fundamental single wire antenna. Then by the principle of radiation there must
be a time varying current.
For a single wire Antenna
1). If charge is stationary, no current is developed. So no radiation is observed.
2). If charge is moving with uniform velocity, then
i). No radiation for straight wire which is infinity in extent.
ii). Possible radiation if wire is curved, bent, discontinuous, terminated or
truncated.

Fig: Radiation from single wire

 Radiation of Two wires

Fig: Radiation from two wire antenna

 When the source is applied, the electric fields get developed

between conductors. The electric lines of force are tangent to
the electric field.
 Radiation of Two wires

 The strength of electric lines of force is proportional to the electric field intensity. As
the free electrons have tendency to get separated from the atom.
 The electric lines of force operate on free electrons of each conductor and force to
displace.
 Due to the charge movement, current is produced and it produces magnetic field
intensity.
 The electric field lines travel from positive charges to negative charges while the
magnetic field lines from closed loops encircling current carrying conductors.
 The charge distribution is due to electric field lines.
 Assuming sinusoidal voltage source between the two conductors,
the electric field between the conductors is also sinusoidal.
 Dipole

Fig: Formation of electric field line for short dipole

 Consider a small dipole is centre fed in the first quarter of the period
T i.e t=T/4. At this time the charge attains the maximum value. The
lines travel radially outward a distance λ/4.
 In next quarter period of time, the three lines produced originally,
now travel an additional λ/4 distance. So the total distance now
becomes λ/2.
 Dipole

 The charge density on the conductors starts diminishing. This is because the opposite
charges are introduced.
 These opposite charges neutralize the charge on conductor. So there is no charge on
the conductor. So the lines of force get detached from conductors and combine to
form closed loops.
 Radiation Pattern

 Practically any antenna cannot radiate energy with same strength uniformly in all
directions.
 It is found that the radiation is large in one direction while zero or minimum in other
directions.
 The radiation from the antenna in any direction is measures in terms of field
strength at a point located at a particular distance from an antenna.
 The field strength can be calculated by measuring voltages at two points on an
electric lines of force and then dividing by distance between two points.
 The unit of radiation pattern is volt per meter.
 In general radiation pattern is three dimensional patterns. As
the three dimensional pattern cannot be plotted in a plane,
instead of this, the polar plots of the relative magnitude of the
field in any desired plane are sketched.
 Radiation Pattern

 These polar plots are plotted in two planes, namely one containing the antenna and
the other normal to it.
 These planes are called principal planes and the two plots or patterns are called
principle plane patterns.
 When the magnitude and the normalized field strength is plotted versus θ with
constant ϕ, the pattern is called E-plane pattern or vertical pattern.
 When the normalized field strength is plotted versus ϕ for θ=Π/2, the pattern is
called H-plane pattern or horizontal pattern.
Fig: E-Plane and H-Plane Pattern for
the Hertzian Dipole
 Radiation Pattern

Fig: Radiation patterns for vertical dipoles of Fig: Field radiation patterns for vertical
half and one wave length dipoles of one and half wave length and two
wavelengths
 Patterns

 Radiation patterns are three dimensional quantities involving the variation of field
or power as a function of spherical coordinates θ and ϕ.

Fig: Radiation Pattern

 Patterns

 The pattern has its main lobe in the Z-direction (θ=0) with minor lobes in other
direction.
1). The θ component of the electric field as function of the angles θ and ϕ or E θ(θ, ϕ)
V/m.
2). The ϕ component of the electric field as a function of the angles θ and ϕ or E ϕ(θ, ϕ)
V/m.
3). The phase of these fields as a function of the angles θ and ϕ or δθ(θ, ϕ) and δϕ (θ, ϕ)
rad or degrees
 Dividing field components by its maximum value, we obtain a
normalized or relative field pattern which is a dimensionless
number with maximum value of unity.
 The normalized field pattern
 Patterns

 The half power level occurs at the angles of θ and ϕ for which

 The normalized power pattern

 Where

 Z0= intrinsic impedance of space =376.7 Ω

 Patterns

Fig: Two dimensional Field Pattern

 HPBW= Half Power Beam Width

 FNBW = Beam Width between First Nulls
 Patterns

Prob). An antenna field pattern given by

Find Half-power beam width (HPBW).

Sol).
E(θ) at half power = 0.707
 Patterns

Prob). An antenna has a field pattern given by

Find (a). Half power beamwidth (HPBW)

(b). Beanwidth between first nulls (FNBW).
Sol).
(a). E(θ) a half power = 0.707
 Patterns

Let assume

(b). 0= cosθ.cos2θ
so θ=450 and
 Beam Area or Beam Solid Angle (ΩA)

Fig: polar coordinates showing

incremental solid angle dA= r2.dΩ
on the surface of a sphere of radius r
where dΩ= solid angle subtended by
the area dA. (b). Antenna power
pattern and its equivalent solid angle
or beam area ΩA

 In polar two dimensional coordinates an incremental area

dA on the surface of a sphere is the product of the length
rdθ in the θ direction (latitude) and rsinθ.dϕ in the ϕ
direction (longitude).
 Beam Area or Beam Solid Angle (ΩA)

 The area of the strip of width rdθ extending around the sphere at a constant angle θ
is given by (2Πrsinθ((rdθ).
 Integrating this for θ values from 0 to Π yields the area of the sphere.
 Thus, Area of the sphere

 where 4Π= Solid angle subtended by a sphere

 Beam Area or Beam Solid Angle (ΩA)

 The beam area or beam solid angle or ΩA of an antenna is given by the integral of the
normalized power pattern over a sphere (4Π Sr).
 Beam Area or Beam Solid Angle (ΩA)

 The beam area ΩA is the solid angle through which all the power radiated by the
antenna would stream if P(θ,ϕ) maintained its maximum value over ΩA and was zero
elsewhere. Thus power radiated = P(θ, ϕ) . ΩA watts.
 The beam area of an Antenna can often be described approximately in terms of the
angles subtended by the half-power points of the main lobe in the two principle
planes.

 Where θHP and ϕHP are the half-power beam widths (HPBW) in the two principle
planes.
 Beam Area or Beam Solid Angle (ΩA)

 Prob). Find the number of square degrees in the solid angle Ω on a spherical surface
that is between θ=200 and θ=400 and between ϕ=300 to ϕ=700
Sol).

or
From Fig. Δθ=200 and Δϕ=400 X sin300 = 400 X 0.5= 200
where 300 is the median θ value of latitude. Thus
 Beam Area or Beam Solid Angle (ΩA)

 Prob). An antenna has the field pattern given by

Find the beam area of this pattern.

Sol). We know that

or
 Beam Area or Beam Solid Angle (ΩA)

 One square radian = 3283 square degrees

 Radiation Intensity

 The power radiated from an antenna per unit solid angle is called the radiation
intensity ‘U’ (watts per steradian or per square degree).
 The normalized power pattern of the previous section can also expressed in terms of
this parameter as the ratio of the radiation intensity U( θ, ϕ) as a function of angle, to
its maximum value.
 Beam Efficiency

 The beam area ΩA consists of the main beam area ΩM plus the minor lobe area Ωm
 Thus

 The ratio of the main area to the (total) beam area is called (main) beam efficiency
εM.

 The ratio of the minor lobe area (Ωm) to the (total) beam area is called the stray
factor.
 Directivity, D and Gain G

 The directivity of an antenna is equal to the ratio of the maximum power density
P(θ, ϕ)max watts/ m2 to its average value over a sphere.

 The directivity is a dimension less ratio ≥ 1.

 The average power density over a sphere is given by
 Directivity, D and Gain G

 Therefore, the Directivity

 Directivity, D and Gain G

 So the directivity is the ratio of area of a sphere (4Π Sr) to the beam area ΩA of the
antenna.
 Smaller the beam area, larger the directivity D. For an antenna that radiates over
only half a sphere the beam area ΩA = 2Π Sr and the Directivity is

where dBi is decibels over Isotropic.

 The idealized Isotropic antenna (ΩA = 4Π Sr) has the lowest possible directivity D=1.
 Actual Antennas have directivities greater than 1.
 The simple short dipole has a beam are ΩA = 2.67Π Sr and
a Directivity D= 1.5 ( 1.76 dBi).
 Directivity, D and Gain G

 The ratio of gain to the Directivity is the Antenna efficiency factor.

So G= KD
 where K is the efficiency factor. 0 ≤ K ≤ 1.
 In practice G is always less than D.
 Gain is defined as

 If the Half power beam widths are known, the

 Directivity, D and Gain G

θHP= Half power beam width in one principal plane

ϕHP= Half power beam width in other principal plane.
 If we neglect the minor lobes, The directivity

 If the Antenna has a main half-power beam width HPBW= 200 in both principle
planes its directivity,
 Directivity, D and Gain G

 Which means that the antenna radiates 100 times the power in the direction of the
main beam as a non directional, Isotropic antenna.
 If an Antenna has a main lobe with both half power beam widths (HPBW) = 20 0, its
directivity approximately
 Directivity, D and Gain G

Prob). The normalized field pattern of an antenna is given by En= sinθ.sinϕ where θ is
the zenith angle (measured from z-axis) and ϕ is the azimuth angle (measured from x
axis). En has a value only for 0 ≤ θ ≤ Π and 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ Π and is zero elsewhere.
Find a). The exact Directivity
b). Approximate Directivity
c). Decibel difference
Sol).
 Directivity and Resolution

 The resolution of an antenna may be defined as equal to half the beam width
between first nulls. FNBW/2.
 Half the beam width between first nulls is approximately equal to the half power
beam width (HPBW) or

 The product of the FNBW/2 in the two principle planes of the antenna pattern is a
measure of the Antenna beam Area.

 Directivity and Resolution

 The number ‘N’ of the radio transmitters or point sources of radiation distributed
uniformly over the sky which an antenna can resolve is given approximately by

 Where ΩA = Beam Area, Sr

 Then the Directivity,

 We may conclude that ideally the number of point sources an antenna can resolve is
numerically equal to the directivity of the Antenna or

 The directivity is equal to the number of point sources in the

sky that the antenna can resolve.
 Antenna Apertures

 Let the pointing vector or power density of the plane wave be ‘S’ watts per square
meter and the area, or physical aperture of the horn be AP square meters.
 If an antenna exerts all the power from the wave over its entire physical aperture,
then the total power ‘P’ absorbed from the wave is

 But the field response of Antenna is not uniform across the Aperture ‘A’ because ‘E’
at the side walls must equal to zero.
 The effective aperture ‘Ae’ of the antenna is less than the physical
aperture AP is given by
 Antenna Apertures

 Consider an Antenna with an effective aperture Ae, which radiates all of its power in
a conical pattern of beam area ΩA . Assuming a uniform field ‘Ea’ over the aperture,
the power radiated is

 Where Z0 is the Intrinsic Impedance of the medium (377Ω).

 Assuming a uniform field ‘Er’ in the far field at a distance ‘r’ , the power radiated is
given by

 Equating (3) and (4)

 Antenna Apertures

 If Ae is known, we can determine ΩA at a given wave length from (5), the directivity

 The effective Aperture

 The expression for directivity

 Antenna Apertures

 The load power

Where S= Power density at receiving antenna, w/m2

Ae= Effective aperture of Antenna, m2
 Reradiated Power

 Where Ar= Reradiating Aperture = Ae m2 and

 Effective Height

 The effective height ‘h’ (meters) of an antenna is another parameter related to the
aperture.
 Multiplying the effective height by the incident field ‘E’ then the induced voltage, V
V=hE----(1)
 The effective height may be defined as the ratio of the induced voltage to the incident
field h= V/E ---(2)
Fig: (a). Dipole of length l= λ/2 with
sinusoidal current distribution
(b). Dipole of length l=0.1λ with
triangular current distribution
 Effective Height

 Consider a vertical dipole of length l= λ/2 immersed in an incident field ‘E’.

 If the current distribution of the dipole were uniform, its effective height would be ‘l’.
The actual current distribution is nearly sinusoidal with an average value 2/Π = 0.64,
so its effective height ‘h’ = 0.64 l.
 If the dipole is used at a longer wavelength of 0.1λ, the current tapers almost linearly
from the central feed point to zero at the ends in a triangular distribution.
 The average current is ½ of the maximum so that the effective height is ‘0.5 l’.
 We can define the effective height by consider the transmitting case and equate the
effective height to the physical height ( or length ‘l’) multiplied by the average
current.

he= effective height, m

hP= Physical height, m
Iav= Average current, A
 Effective Height

 For an Antenna of radiation resistance Rr matched to its load, the power delivered to
the load is equal to

 In terms of the effective aperture the same power is given by

 Equating the equation (4) and (5)

and
 Effective Aperture and Directivity of a short Dipole Antenna

 The wave is assumed to be linearly polarized ‘E’ in the ‘y’ direction. The current on
the dipole is assumed constant and in the same phase over its entire length, and the
terminating resistance ‘RT’ is assumed equal to the dipole resistance ‘Rr’. The
antenna loss resistance ‘RL’ is assumed equal to zero.
 What is (a) The dipoles maximum effective aperture
(b) Directivity
Fig: Short dipole with uniform current
induced by incident wave

Sol).
 Effective Aperture and Directivity of a short Dipole Antenna

 The incident voltage ‘V’ is the product of the effective field intensity at the dipole and
its length

 The Radiation resistance ‘Rr’ of a short dipole of length ‘l’ with uniform current

λ= Wave length
Iav= Average Current
I0= Terminal Current
 The power density of incident wave at the dipole is related to the intensity by
 Effective Aperture and Directivity of a short Dipole Antenna

 Substituting (2), (3), (4) in (1)

 The maximum effective aperture of a short dipole ( for Iav= I0).
 (a).

 (b)
 Effective Aperture and Directivity of Linear λ/2 Dipole

 A Plane wave incident on the antenna is travelling in the negative ‘x’ direction. The
wave is linearly polarized with ‘E’ in the y-direction. The Antenna has been replaced
by an equivalent or thevenin generator. the infinitesimal voltage ‘dv’ of this generator
due to the voltage induced by the incident wave in an infinitesimal element of length
‘dy’ of the antenna is
 Effective Aperture and Directivity of Linear λ/2 Dipole

 Find (a). Effective Aperture

(b). Directivity of the λ/2 Dipole
 Sol). (a) The total induced voltage ‘V’ is given by integrating ‘dv’ over the length of
the antenna

 The value of radiation resistance ‘Rr’ of the linear λ/2 antenna will be taken as 73Ω.
 The terminating resistance RT is assumed equal to Rr. The maximum effective
aperture of a linear λ/2 antenna

 (b).