UNIT – VI

RAY OPTICS

REFLECTION OF LIGHT
Mirror: - A polished surface which regularly reflect most of the light incident on it is called
mirror.

There are three types of mirror, they are

(a) Plane mirror

(b) Spherical mirror
(c) Parabolic mirror
There are two types of spherical mirror, they are concave and convex mirror.

Reflection of light: - The bouncing back of light in same medium after striking a polished
surface is known as reflection of light.

In the reflection of light there will be no change in the frequency of light because frequency
is the property of the source of light, but there will be change in phase by 180 o (boundary
condition). As well as there will be no change in the speed of light ray because there is no
change of medium as a result the wavelength of the light would also remain same (𝑉 ∝ 𝜆).

There will be the change in direction of light by the angle of 180 - 2𝜃 where 𝜃 is the angle of
incidence.

Law of reflection: -

(1) incident ray, normal and reflected ray lies on the same plane or surface.
(2) The angle of reflection is always equal to angle of incidence.

Mirror Equation: - The equation which relate the object and image distance with the focal
length of the mirror is known as mirror equation.

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝒇 𝒗 𝒖
Proof: - Consider an object AB placed beyond C in front of a concave mirror of focal length f.
The image A’B’ is formed between C and F as shown in figure.
In ∆ ABP and ∆ A’B’P

ABP = A’B’P = 90o

APB = A’PB’ = vertically opposite angles

So, ∆ ABP ~ ∆ A’B’P

𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝐵
So, 𝐴′𝐵′ = 𝑃𝐵′
---------------- (1)

In ∆ MNF and ∆ A’B’F

MNF = A’B’F = 90o

MFN = A’FB’ = vertically opposite angles

So, ∆ MNF ~ ∆ A’B’F
𝑀𝑁 𝐴𝐵 𝑁𝐹 𝑃𝐹
So, 𝐴′𝐵′ = 𝐴′𝐵′
= 𝐵′ 𝐹
= 𝐵′ 𝐹 ---------------- (2)

From equation (1) and (2)

𝑃𝐵 𝑃𝐹
= (𝐵 ′ 𝐹 = 𝑃𝐵 ′ − 𝑃𝐹)
𝑃𝐵′ 𝐵′𝐹

𝑂𝐵 𝑂 𝐹2
=
𝑂𝐵′ 𝑃𝐵′ −𝑃𝐹
−𝑢 −𝑓
−𝑣
=
−𝑣+𝑓

−𝑢𝑣 + 𝑢𝑓 = − 𝑣𝑓
On dividing the entire equation by 𝑢𝑣𝑓 we get,
−𝑢𝑣 𝑢𝑓 − 𝑣𝑓
+ =
𝑢𝑣𝑓 𝑢𝑣𝑓 𝑢𝑣𝑓

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝒇 𝒗 𝒖
Focal length of mirror is independent of medium, on changing surrounding medium there
will be no change in focal length of mirror.
Magnification: - It is defined as the ratio of height of image to the height of object.

ℎ′
𝑚=
ℎ
𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝐵
From equation (1), 𝐴′𝐵′
= 𝑃𝐵′

ℎ −𝑣
− ℎ′
=
−𝑢

So,
𝒉′ 𝒗
𝒎= = −
𝒉 𝒖
Magnification is unit less and dimension less quantity.
1 1 1
From mirror equation, = +
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
On multiplying equation by v on both sides, we get 𝑓 = 𝑣 + 𝑢
𝑣 𝑣
−𝑢 = 1−𝑓

𝒗 𝒇− 𝒗
So, 𝒎 = − 𝒖 =
𝒇

𝑢 𝑢 𝑢
On multiplying equation by u on both sides, we get 𝑓 = +
𝑣 𝑢

𝑢 𝑢
−𝑣 = 1−𝑓

𝒗 𝒇
So, 𝒎 = − 𝒖 = 𝒇−𝒖
Image formation by plane mirror: -

(1) Focal length of plane mirror is infinite.

(2) Plane mirror forms the virtual and erect image.
(3) The image distance is always equal to the object distance.

An object O is placed at a distance u from the plane mirror, its virtual image is formed by the
plane mirror at point D as shown in figure.

In ∆ ABC and ∆ DBC

ABC = DBC = 90o

BAC = CDB = i
So, ∆ ABC ≅ ∆ DBC

So by CPCT, V = U
This shows that image distance is always equal to object distance in case of plane mirror.

REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Refraction of light: - The bending of light ray when it travels from one transparent medium
to another transparent medium except when light is incident along the normal is known as
refraction of light.
OR

The change in the speed of light ray when it travels from one medium to another medium is
known as refraction of light.

The bending of light ray depends on;

Change in speed – If a substance causes the light to speed up or slow down more, it will
refract (bend) more.
Angle of the incident ray – if the light is entering the substance at a greater angle, the
amount of refraction will also be more noticeable. On the other hand, if the light is entering
the new substance from straight on (at 90° to the surface), the light will still slow down, but
it won’t change direction at all.

In the refraction of the light speed, wavelength and direction (except incident along the
normal) changes but there will be no change in frequency of light ray because frequency is
the characteristic property of source of light.

 When light travel from rare to denser medium its speed decreases as a result
wavelength also decreases by same amount as 𝑣 ∝ 𝜆. Light bends towards the
normal. Angle of incidence is greater than the angle of refraction. 𝑖 > 𝑟.
 When light travel from denser to rarer medium its speed increases as a result
wavelength also increases by same amount as 𝑣 ∝ 𝜆. Light bends away from the
normal. Angle of refraction is greater than the angle of incidence. 𝑟 > 𝑖.
Refractive Index: - Refractive index of the material is a dimensionless quantity which
determines how fast light travel in a medium. It is defined as the ratio of speed of light in
first medium to speed of light in second medium.
𝑉1
𝜇=
𝑉2
Absolute Refractive Index: - The ratio of speed of light in air/vacuum to the speed of light in
any other medium is known as absolute refractive index.
𝑐
𝜇=
𝑣
The minimum value of absolute refractive index is equal to 1 for air/ vacuum otherwise its
value is always greater than 1 i.e, 𝜇 ≥ 1.
Relative Refractive Index: - The relative refractive index can be greater than or less than 1.
3 4
As refractive of glass w.r.t. air is 𝜇𝑔 = and refractive of water w.r.t. air is 𝜇𝑤 =
2 3

If the light travels from water to glass, then the refractive index of glass w.r.t. water is
𝜇𝑔 3/2 9
𝑤 𝜇𝑔 = = = >1
𝜇𝑤 4/3 8
If the light travels from glass to water, then the refractive index of water w.r.t. glass is
𝜇𝑤 4/3 8
𝑔 𝜇𝑤 = = = <1
𝜇𝑔 3/2 9

Law of refraction: -

(1) The incident ray, refracted ray and normal lies on the same plane or surface.
(2) Snell’s Law: - According to this law the product of sine of angle of incidence and
refractive index of first medium is always equal to the product of sine of angle of
refraction and refractive index of second medium.

𝜇1 sin 𝑖 = 𝜇2 sin 𝑟
sin 𝑖 𝜇
1 𝜇2 = sin 𝑟 = 𝜇2
1

If the light is incidence along the normal 𝑖 = 0

From Snell’s law,
𝜇1 sin 𝑖 = 𝜇2 sin 𝑟
as 𝑖 = 0, so 𝜇1 sin 0𝑜 = 𝜇2 sin 𝑟

𝜇2 sin 𝑟 = 0
So, 𝒓 = 𝟎

Relation between refractive index and wavelength: -

As
𝑉1 𝜆1 𝜈 𝜆1
𝜇= = =
𝑉2 𝜆2𝜈 𝜆2
𝝀𝟏
So, 𝝀𝟐 =
𝝁

Means light travel through second medium without any deviation.

Principle of Reversibility: - Suppose a ray of light is travelling from rarer to denser medium
it bends towards the normal as shown in figure. A plane mirror is placed on the path of the
refracted ray such that the light is incident along the normal on the plane mirror. The light
gets reflect back and now its travelling from denser to rarer medium. The light retraces its
path.
sin 𝑖
From rarer to denser medium, R𝜇D = ------------------- (1)
sin 𝑟

sin 𝑟
From denser to rarer medium, D𝜇R = sin 𝑖
------------------- (2)

On multiplying equation (1) and (2), we get

sin 𝑖 sin 𝑟
R𝜇 D x D𝜇R = 𝑥 =1
sin 𝑟 sin 𝑖

Refraction through glass slab: - let a light ray incident on a

rectangular glass slab with the angle of incidence i. When the light ray passes through the
glass slab it gets refracted twice, once when it enters the glass slab and second time when it
is coming out of the glass slab.

sin 𝑖
When light enters the glass slab, a 𝜇g = sin 𝑟
 sin 𝑟
When the light ray emerges from the glass slab, g𝜇a =
sin 𝑒

sin 𝑖 sin 𝑟
On multiplying both the equations, a 𝜇g x g𝜇a = 𝑥
sin 𝑟 sin 𝑒

As, a 𝜇g x g𝜇a = 1

So, sin 𝑖 = sin 𝑟

So, 𝑖 = 𝑒

This shows that after getting refracted through the glass slab the light ray changes its path
but doesn’t change its direction.

Lateral Shift: - The perpendicular distance between the original path of the ray and the
incident ray is known as lateral shift.
𝐵𝑀 𝑑
In ∆ AMB, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 = 𝐴𝐵
=
𝐴𝐵
so 𝑑 = 𝐴𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 (𝛿 = 𝑖 − 𝑟)
𝐴𝑁 𝑡 𝑡
∆ ANB, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = = so 𝐴𝐵 =
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟

𝒕 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒊 − 𝒓)
𝒅=
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒓
This shows that the lateral displacement depends on;

(1) Lateral displacement is directly proportional to the thickness t of the glass slab.
(2) On increasing angle of incidence lateral displacement increases.
(3) On increasing refractive index of the material lateral displacement increases.

Maximum value of lateral displacement: -

If the light is incident along the surface (grazing incidence) i.e, i = 90 o

So
𝑡 sin(90𝑜 − 𝑟) 𝑡 cos 𝑟
𝑑= = =𝑡
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟

Minimum value of lateral displacement: -

If the light is incident along the normal i.e, i = 0 o so r = 0o

𝑑=0

Relation between Real and Apparent depth: - Consider an object is placed within the water
at point O as shown in figure. Because of refraction from water for the observer in air the
image of the object is appeared at point I.
Real depth of the object = AO

Apparent depth = AI

From Snell’s law,

𝜇2 sin 𝑖 = 𝜇1 sin 𝑟
𝜇2 sin 𝑟
𝜇= =
𝜇1 sin 𝑖
 𝐴𝐵
In ∆ OAB, sin 𝑖 =
𝑂𝐵

𝐴𝐵
In ∆ IAB, sin 𝑟 =
𝐼𝐵

𝜇2 sin 𝑟 𝑂𝐵 𝑂𝐴
𝜇= = = ≅
𝜇1 sin 𝑖 𝐼𝐵 𝐼𝐴

𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉
𝝁=
𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉
It’s clear that real depth is greater than the apparent depth by 𝜇 times.
Shift in position, OI = Real depth – Apparent depth = OA – AI

𝑶𝑰 = 𝒔𝒉𝒊𝒇𝒕 = 𝝁 𝑨. 𝑫 − 𝑨. 𝑫 = 𝑨. 𝑫 (𝝁 − 𝟏)
𝑹.𝑫 𝟏
Or, 𝑶𝑰 = 𝒔𝒉𝒊𝒇𝒕 = 𝑹. 𝑫 − = 𝑹. 𝑫(𝟏 − )
𝝁 𝝁

If the object placed in rarer medium and the observer will be in denser medium, then

𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉
𝝁=
𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉
It’s clear that real depth is less than the apparent depth by 𝜇 times.

Refraction through Spherical surface: -

Rarer to Denser medium: - Consider a point object is placed at point O in a medium of

refractive index 𝜇1 in front of convex spherical surface of radius of curvature R and its real
image is formed in denser medium of refractive index 𝜇2
at a point I as shown in figure.

From Snell’s law, 𝜇1 sin 𝑖 = 𝜇2 sin 𝑟

As aperture is very small, so 𝜇1 𝑖 = 𝜇2 𝑟

In ∆ AOC, 𝑖 = 𝛼 + 𝛾

In ∆ ACI, 𝛾 = 𝑟 + 𝛽, 𝑠𝑜 𝑟 = 𝛾 − 𝛽
𝐴𝑀 𝐴𝑃
In ∆ AMO, tan 𝛼 = 𝑂𝑀
≅ ≅ 𝛼
𝑃𝑂
𝐴𝑀 𝐴𝑃
In ∆ AMI, tan 𝛽 = 𝑀𝐼
≅ 𝑃𝐼
≅ 𝛽
𝐴𝑀 𝐴𝑃
In ∆ AMC, tan 𝛾 = 𝑀𝐶
≅ 𝑃𝐶
≅ 𝛾

So, 𝜇1 (𝛼 + 𝛾) = 𝜇2 ( 𝛾 − 𝛽)
𝐴𝑃 𝐴𝑃 𝐴𝑃 𝐴𝑃
𝜇1 ( − ) = 𝜇2 ( − )
𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐼
𝜇1 𝜇 𝜇 𝜇
𝑃𝑂
− 𝑃𝐶1 = 𝑃𝐶2 − 𝑃𝐼2
𝜇1 𝜇 𝜇2 𝜇
− 𝑃𝐼2 = − 𝑃𝐶1
𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝐶
 𝝁𝟏 𝝁𝟐 𝝁𝟐 − 𝝁𝟏
On using sign convention, − =
−𝒖 𝒗 𝑹

Refraction through Spherical surface: -

Denser to Rarer medium: - Consider a point object is placed at point O in a medium of

refractive index 𝜇1 in front of convex spherical surface of radius of curvature R and its real
image is formed in denser medium of refractive index 𝜇2 at a point I as shown in figure.

From Snell’s law, 𝜇2 sin 𝑖 = 𝜇1 sin 𝑟

As aperture is very small, so 𝜇2 𝑖 = 𝜇1 𝑟
In ∆ AOC, 𝑖 = 𝛾 − 𝛼

In ∆ ACI, 𝑟 = 𝛾 + 𝛽
𝐴𝑀 𝐴𝑃
In ∆ AMO, tan 𝛼 = 𝑂𝑀
≅ 𝑃𝑂
≅ 𝛼
𝐴𝑀 𝐴𝑃
In ∆ AMI, tan 𝛽 = 𝑀𝐼
≅ ≅ 𝛽
𝑃𝐼

𝐴𝑀 𝐴𝑃
In ∆ AMC, tan 𝛾 = ≅ ≅ 𝛾
𝑀𝐶 𝑃𝐶

So, 𝜇2 (𝛾 − 𝛼) = 𝜇1 ( 𝛾 + 𝛽)
𝐴𝑃 𝐴𝑃 𝐴𝑃 𝐴𝑃
𝜇2 (𝑃𝐶 − ) = 𝜇1 ( + )
𝑂𝑃 𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐼
𝜇2 𝜇 𝜇 𝜇
𝑃𝐶
− 𝑂𝑃2 = 𝑃𝐶1 + 𝑃𝐼1
𝜇 𝜇 𝜇 𝜇
− 𝑂𝑃2 − 𝑃𝐼1 = 𝑃𝐶1 − 𝑃𝐶2

2 − 1 = 1 2 𝜇 𝜇 𝜇 −𝜇
On using sign convention, − −𝑢 𝑣 −𝑅
𝝁𝟐 𝝁𝟏 𝝁𝟏 − 𝝁𝟐
+ =
−𝒖 𝒗 𝑹
Lens: - Lens is a transparent medium bounded by the two surfaces and out of the two
surfaces at least one should be curved.

Lens Maker Formula: - Consider a point object is placed at O in rarer medium of refractive
index 𝜇1 . The image by the first convex surface ACB is formed at point I’ in extended denser
medium of refractive index 𝜇2 . For the second surface ADB the image I’ behaves like an
object placed in denser medium and its image is formed at I by the second surface.
𝜇1 𝜇2 𝜇2 − 𝜇1
For surface ACB (rarer to denser): - − =
−𝑢 𝑣 𝑅
𝜇1 𝜇2 𝜇2 − 𝜇1
so, − = -------------------- (1)
−𝑢 𝑣′ 𝑅1
𝜇2 𝜇1
For surface ADB (denser to rarer): - + =
−𝑢 𝑣
𝜇1 − 𝜇2
𝑅
𝜇2 𝜇1 𝜇1 − 𝜇2
so, + = ---------------------- (2)
−𝑣′ 𝑣 𝑅2
On adding equation (1) and (2), we get
𝜇1 𝜇1 𝜇2 − 𝜇1 𝜇1 − 𝜇2
+ = +
−𝑢 𝑣 𝑅1 𝑅2

1 1 1 1
𝜇1 ( + ) = (𝜇 2 − 𝜇 1 ) ( − )
−𝑢 𝑣 𝑅1 𝑅2

1 1 𝜇2 1 1
+ = ( − 1) ( − )
−𝑢 𝑣 𝜇1 𝑅1 𝑅2

𝟏 𝝁𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
𝑷= = ( − 𝟏) ( − )
𝒇 𝝁𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
This shows that the focal length of lens depends on the radius of curvature of both the
surfaces as well as on the refractive index of the lens material and of the surrounding.

Convex lens: - (1) If 𝜇 2 > 𝜇 1 – converges the light.

(2) If 𝜇1 > 𝜇 2 – diverges the light.

(3) If 𝜇 1 = 𝜇 2 – No convergence or divergence of light.

Concave lens: - (1) If 𝜇 2 > 𝜇 1 – diverges the light.

(2) If 𝜇1 > 𝜇 2 – converges the light.

(4) If 𝜇 1 = 𝜇 2 – No convergence or divergence of light.

Lens Equation: - A equation which relate the object and image distance with the focal
length of the lens is known as lens equation.

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= −
𝒇 𝒗 𝒖
Proof: - Consider an object AB placed beyond C in front of a convex lens of focal length f.
The image A’B’ is formed between C and F as shown in figure.

In ∆ ABO and ∆ A’B’O

ABO = A’B’O = 90o

AOB = A’OB’ = vertically opposite angles
So, ∆ ABO ~ ∆ A’B’O
𝐴𝐵 𝑂𝐵
So, = ---------------- (1)
𝐴′𝐵′ 𝑂𝐵′

In ∆ MOF2 and ∆ A’B’F2

MOF2 = A’B’F2 = 90o

MF2O = A’F2B’ = vertically opposite angles

So, ∆ MOF2 ~ ∆ A’B’F2
𝑀𝑂 𝐴𝐵 𝑂 𝐹2
So, 𝐴′𝐵′ = = ---------------- (2)
𝐴′𝐵′ 𝐵′𝐹2

From equation (1) and (2)

𝑂𝐵 𝑂𝐹
= 𝐵′ 𝐹2 (𝐵 ′ 𝐹2 = 𝑂𝐵 ′ − 𝑂𝐹2 )
𝑂𝐵′ 2

𝑂𝐵 𝑂𝐹
𝑂𝐵′
= 𝑂 𝐵′ −𝑂
2
𝐹 2

−𝑢 𝑓
𝑣
= 𝑣−𝑓

−𝑢𝑣 + 𝑢𝑓 = 𝑣𝑓
On dividing the entire equation by 𝑢𝑣𝑓 we get,
−𝑢𝑣 𝑢𝑓 𝑣𝑓
+ =
𝑢𝑣𝑓 𝑢𝑣𝑓 𝑢𝑣𝑓

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= −
𝒇 𝒗 𝒖
Combination of Lens: - Consider two thin convex lens L 1 and L2 of focal length f1 and f2
respectively placed in contact with each other. A point object O is placed in front of lens L 1
which forms its image at I1 which behaves as a virtual object for lens L 2 which forms the final
image at I.
1 1 1
For lens L1: -
𝑓1
= −𝑈
𝑉1

1 1 1
For lens L2: - 𝑓2
= 𝑉
−𝑉
1

1 1 1 1 1 1
On adding, 𝑓 + 𝑓 = 𝑉1
−𝑈 +𝑉− 𝑉
1 2 1

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + −−−+
𝒇 𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐 𝒇𝒏

Total power of lens, 𝑷 = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 + − − − − + 𝑷𝒏

𝑉1
Magnification of lens L 1: - m1 =
𝑢

𝑉
Magnification of lens L 2: - m2 = 𝑉
1
 𝑉1 𝑉 𝑉
On multiplying both, we get m1 x m2 = 𝑋 = =𝑚
𝑢 𝑉1 𝑢

Total magnification, m = m1 X m2

OPTICAL INSTRUMENT
Microscope: - Microscope is an optical instrument which is used to see the magnified image
of a smaller size object.

Angular Magnification: - It is defined as the ratio of angle formed by the image (𝛽) with the
eye of the observer when the final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision or
at infinity to the angle formed by the object (𝛼) with the eye of the observer when the
object is assumed to be placed at the least distance of the dis tinct vision.
𝜷
𝑴=
𝜶
Near point adjustment: - Final image is formed at least distance of distinct vision D (25 cm).

Normal Adjustment: - Final image is formed at infinity.

Simple Microscope: - Simple microscope consist of single convex lens.

Near point adjustment: - An object AB is placed between optical centre and focus of convex
lens so that its virtual and magnified image A’B’ is
formed at D.
𝐴′𝐵′
In ∆ A’B’O, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽 = ≈ 𝛽
𝐵′𝑂

𝐴′′𝐵′ 𝐴𝐵
In ∆ A’B’O, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 = = ≈ 𝛼
𝐵′𝑂 𝐵′𝑂

𝛽 𝐴′𝐵′ 𝑉
𝑀= = =
𝛼 𝐴𝐵 𝑢

From lens equation,

1 1 1
= −
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
On multiply both side with v
𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
𝑓
=𝑣−𝑢
𝑣 𝑣
=1− (as image is formed at D so v = - D)
𝑢 𝑓

𝑫
𝑴 = 𝟏+
𝒇
Normal Adjustment: - An object AB is placed at focus of convex lens so that its virtual and
magnified image is formed at infinity.
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵
In ∆ ABO, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽 = = ≈ 𝛽
𝐵𝑂 𝑓

𝑀𝑁 𝐴𝐵
In ∆ MNO, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 = = ≈ 𝛼
𝑁𝑂 𝐷
 𝜷 𝑫
𝑴= =
𝜶 𝒇
Magnification is inversely proportional to the focal length of the lens.

Magnification in near adjustment is more than the normal adjustment but normal
adjustment is preferred because eye is relaxed in normal adjustment.

Compound Microscope: - In compound microscope two convex lens known as objective and
eye lens are used to increase the magnification.

Near point adjustment: - An object AB is placed just outside the focus of the objective lens
which forms its real and inverted image A’B’ between the optical centre and focus of eye
lens. The eye lens formed its virtual and erect image A’’B’’ at distance D. For greater
magnification the image of objective lens is adjusted just near to the eye lens.

𝐴′′𝐵′′
In ∆ A’’B’’O’, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽 = 𝐷
≈ 𝛽
𝐴𝐵
In ∆ ABO, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 = ≈ 𝛼
𝐷

𝛽 𝐴′′𝐵′′ 𝐴′′𝐵′′ 𝐴′𝐵′ 𝐴′′𝐵′′ 𝐴′𝐵′

𝑀= = = 𝑥 = 𝑥 = 𝑚 𝑒 𝑥 𝑚𝑜
𝛼 𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝐴′𝐵′ 𝐴′𝐵′ 𝐴𝐵
𝐷 𝑣𝑜
As 𝑚 𝑒 = 1 + and 𝑚 𝑜 =
𝑓𝑒 𝑢𝑜
𝒗𝒐 𝑫
(𝟏 + ) 𝑴=
𝒖𝒐 𝒇𝒆
For greater magnification both eye lens and objective lens should have smaller focal length
but the focal length of eye lens should be greater than objective lens.
Length of microscope in near adjustment, L = 𝒗𝒐 + |𝒖𝒆 |

Normal adjustment: - An object AB is placed just outside the focus of the objective lens
which forms its real and inverted image A’B’ at the focus of eye lens. The eye lens formed its
virtual and erect image at infinity. For greater magnification the image of objective lens is
adjusted just near to the eye lens.
As, 𝑀 = 𝑚 𝑒 𝑥 𝑚𝑜
𝐷 𝑣𝑜
In normal adjustment, 𝑚 𝑒 = 𝑓𝑒
and 𝑚 𝑜 = 𝑢𝑜

𝒗𝒐 𝑫
𝑴= 𝒙
𝒖𝒐 𝒇𝒆
Length of microscope in normal adjustment, L = 𝒗𝒐 + 𝒇𝒆

Telescope: - Telescope is an optical instrument which is used to see the magnified image of
distant object.

Angular Magnification: - It is defined as the ratio of angle formed by the image (𝛽) with the
eye of the observer when the final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision or
at infinity to the angle formed by the object (𝛼) with the eye of the observer when the
object is at infinity.
𝜷
𝑴=
𝜶
Near point adjustment: - Final image is formed at least distance of distinct vision D (25 cm).
Normal Adjustment: - Final image is formed at infinity.

Astronomical Telescope: - Astronomical telescope is used to see the magnified image of

celestial bodies. It consists of two lenses known as objective and eye lens.

Near point adjustment: - For the objective lens, object is at infinity which forms its real and
inverted image A’B’ at its focus. The image of objective is adjusted between the optical
centre and focus of eye lens. The eye lens formed its virtual and erect image A’’B’’ at
distance D. For greater magnification the image of objective lens is adjusted just near to the
eye lens.
 𝐴′𝐵′ 𝐴′𝐵′
In ∆ A’’B’’C2, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽 = 𝐴′𝐶2
= ≈ 𝛽
𝑢𝑒

𝐴′𝐵′
In ∆ ABO, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 = ≈ 𝛼
𝑓𝑜

𝛽 𝑓𝑜
𝑀= 𝛼
= 𝑢𝑒

From lens equation for eye lens,

1 1 1
𝑓
=𝑣−𝑢

As 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑒 , 𝑣 = −𝐷 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢 = − 𝑢𝑒

1 1 1 1 1
= −𝐷 − − 𝑢 = +
𝑓𝑒 𝑒 −𝐷 𝑢𝑒

1 1 1
𝑢𝑒
= 𝑓𝑒
+ 𝐷

On multiply both side with 𝑓𝑜 , we get

𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑜
𝑢𝑒
= 𝑓𝑒
+ 𝐷

𝑓𝑜
On taking common
𝑓𝑒

𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑜 𝑓
= (1 + 𝐷𝑒 )
𝑢𝑒 𝑓𝑒
𝒇𝒐 𝒇
𝑴= (𝟏 + 𝒆 )
𝒇𝒆 𝑫
Length of Telescope in near adjustment, L = 𝒗𝒐 + |𝒖𝒆 | = 𝒇𝒐 + |𝒖𝒆 |

Normal adjustment: - For the objective lens, object is at infinity which forms its real and
inverted image A’B’ at its focus. The image of objective is adjusted at the focus of eye lens.
The eye lens formed its virtual and erect image at infinity. For greater magnification the
image of objective lens is adjusted just near to the eye lens.
 𝐴′𝐵′
In ∆ A’B’O’, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽 = ≈ 𝛽
𝑓𝑒

𝐴′𝐵′
In ∆ A’B’O, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 = 𝑓𝑜
≈ 𝛼

𝛽 𝑓𝑜
𝑀= 𝛼
= 𝑓𝑒

Length of Telescope in normal adjustment, 𝑳 = 𝒇𝒐 + 𝒇𝒆

In telescope the focal length of objective lens is greater than the focal of eye lens for greater
magnification.
Reflecting type Telescope

Cassegrain Telescope: -

Advantages of Reflecting type over Refracting type Telescope: -

The main advantages are;

(1) Free from spherical aberration as parabolic mirrors are used.

(2) Free from chromatic aberration as mirrors are used instead of lens.
(3) Higher magnifying power.
(4) Higher resolving power.
(5) Brighter image is formed as less absorption of energy.
(6) Smaller in size and easy to handle.

REFRACTION THROUGH PRISM

Prism: - A prism is a transparent three-dimensional shape with two identical shapes facing
each other called base and flat sides are called faces.
When the light passes through the prism it will refract twice once when it enters the prism
and second when the light coming out of the prism. On passing through the prism the light
changes its path by an angle known as angle of deviation 𝛿.

In ∆ GQR, angle GQR = i – r1 and angle GRQ = e – r2

So, 𝛿 = 𝑖 − 𝑟1 + 𝑒 − 𝑟2 = 𝑖 + 𝑒 − (𝑟1 + 𝑟2 ) ---------------------- (1)

In quadrilateral EQFR, EQF + ERF = 180 O so QEF + QFR = 180O

Or A + QFR = 180O ---------------------- (2)

In ∆ QFR, r1 + r2 + QFR = 180o

So, comparing the above equation with equ (2) we get,

A = r1 + r2

On replacing in equ (1) we get, 𝜹 = 𝒊 + 𝒆 − 𝑨

Condition of minimum deviation: - For the minimum value of angle of deviation the sum of
𝒊 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒆 should be minimum. So, 𝒊 = 𝒆.

In the condition of minimum deviation, the refracted light within the prism is parallel to
base of the prism as a result r1 = r2
𝑨+ 𝜹𝒎
So, 𝜹𝒎 = 𝟐𝒊 − 𝑨, 𝒊 =
𝟐
𝐴
and r =
2
𝑨+ 𝜹𝒎
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( )
𝝁= = 𝟐
𝑨
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝟐

For smaller angle of prism: -

sin 𝑖
As 𝜇 =
sin 𝑟
 𝑖
for refraction through first face, 𝜇 = or 𝑖 = 𝜇𝑟1 (for small angle of prism)
𝑟1
𝑒
similarly, for second face, 𝜇 = or 𝑒 = 𝜇𝑟2
𝑟2

so, from the relation, 𝜹 = 𝒊 + 𝒆 − 𝑨 we get, 𝜹 = 𝜇𝑟1 + 𝜇𝑟2 − 𝑨 = 𝜇(𝑟1 + 𝑟1 ) − 𝐴

so, 𝜹 = 𝝁𝑨 − 𝑨 = 𝑨 (𝝁 − 𝟏)

Dispersion of light: - The splitting of white light into seven colours when pass through a
prism is known as dispersion of light.

Reason of dispersion: - As 𝜹 = 𝑨 (𝝁 − 𝟏)

from the relation it’s clear that angle of deviation depends on the refractive index of the
1
material and the refractive index of prism also depends on the wavelength 𝜆 (𝜆 ∝ ) of the
𝜇
light. As the white light comprises of seven colours from violet to red of different
wavelengths. As red colour is having maximum wavelength so it will have minimum value of
refractive index as a result minimum value of angle of deviation and for violet colour
wavelength is minimum so it will have maximum value of refractive index as a result
maximum value of angle of deviation. It means all the seven colours will have different angle
of deviation, that’s why we get the seven colours (visible spectrum) on other side of prism.
𝝀 +𝝀
Mean colour of visible spectrum is yellow colour because 𝝀𝒚 ≈ 𝑹 𝟐 𝒗

Angular Dispersion: - The difference in angle of deviation of two extreme colour is known as
angular dispersion.

Angular dispersion = 𝜹𝑹 − 𝜹𝒗 = 𝑨 (𝝁𝑹 − 𝟏) − 𝑨 (𝝁𝒗 − 𝟏) = 𝑨 (𝝁𝑹 − 𝝁𝒗 )

Dispersive Power: - The ability of prism to disperse the light rays is measured with
dispersive power. Represented by 𝜔.
It is also defined as the ratio of angular dispersion to the deviation of mean colour.

𝜹𝑹 − 𝜹𝒗 𝑨 (𝝁𝑹 − 𝝁𝒗 )
𝝎= =
𝜹𝒚 𝑨 (𝝁𝒚 − 𝟏)
 (𝝁𝑹 − 𝝁𝒗 )
𝝎=
(𝝁𝒚 − 𝟏)

Critical Angle: - The angle of incidence for which angle of refraction equals to 90 o is known
as critical angle.
When light travel from denser to rarer medium then from Snell’s law

𝜇2 sin 𝑖 𝑐 = 𝜇1 sin 90𝑜

𝜇2 1
=
𝜇1 sin 𝑖 𝑐
1
𝜇=
sin 𝑖 𝑐
This shows that greater the refractive index of the material smaller will be
the critical angle.
Total Internal Reflection: - Condition for total internal reflection are;

(1) Light should travel from denser to rarer medium.

(2) Angle of incidence should be greater than critical angle (𝑖 > 𝑖 𝑐)

Application of total internal reflection: -

Fiber Optics: -

Fiber optics, or optical fibers, are long, thin strands of carefully drawn glass about
the diameter of a human hair. These strands are arranged in bundles called optical cables.
We rely on them to transmit light signals over long distances. At the transmitting source, the
light signals are encoded with data, the same data you see on the screen of a computer. So,
the optical fiber transmits “data” by light to a receiving end, where the light signal is
decoded as data. Therefore, fiber optics is actually a transmission medium – a “pipe” to
carry signals over long distances at very high speeds.

A fiber-optic cable is made up of incredibly thin strands of glass or plastic known as optical
fibers; one cable can have as few as two strands or as many as several hundred. Each strand
is less than a tenth as thick as a human hair and can carry something like 25,000 telephone
calls, so an entire fiber-optic cable can easily carry several million calls. The current record
for a "single-mode" fiber (that's explained below) is 178 terabits (trillion bits) per second—
enough for 100 million Zoom sessions

The main part of the cable—in the middle—is called the core and
that's the bit the light travels through. Wrapped around the outside
of the core is another layer of glass called the cladding. The cladding's job is to keep the
light signals inside the core. It can do this because it is made of a different type of glass to
the core. The cladding has a lower refractive index than core.

Fiber-optic cables are now the main way of carrying information over long distances
because they have three very big advantages over old-style copper cables:

 Less attenuation
 No interference
 Higher bandwidth