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Lecture 1 P1: Semiconductor-Physic

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Subject E1

Table of Content
In Class
Intrinsic Semiconductor
P-N Junction
Low Level Injection
Applications of Diode
Books Note
Intrisic Semiconductors
Silicon Structure
Concentrations of free electrons and holes
Doped Semiconductor
Current Flow in Semiconductors
Drift Current
Diffusion Current
Hole Current Diffusion
Electron Current Diffusion
Einstein Relationship

Lecture 1 P1: Semiconductor-Physic 1

 The p-n Juction
The Equilibrium Condition
The Junction Built-in Voltage
Width of and charge stored in Depletion Region
Derivation of Electric Field and Potential of PN Junction
The pn Junction with an Applied Voltage
Reverse Bias
Forward Bias
Capacitive Effects in the pn Juction
Depletion or Junction Capacitance
Additional
Drift Currents
Total Current

In Class
Intrinsic Semiconductor
comes form nature

Intrinsic mean built-in

Replace Si atoms = group 3 elements and replace by boron

Electron is not free, bound together in valence bond and bond too near to nuclear which is proton,
Bonds are too strong ⇒
Carbon can be recognized as Insulator

Silicon

have 3 cells and 14 electrons

max of 2 electrons in the first cell

max of 8 electrons in second cell

and 4 electrons in the valence shell (outer most)

4 electrons in the valence have weak bound to nuclear so they can easily break free

If there is another Silicon atoms comes near, the 4 outer most electrons of each Si is will connect
to each other and create a co-valence bond

What if we erase some of Silicon aotms and replace them as Boron atons?

Since Boron has 5 atomic number and in group 3. It has only 3 electrons in outer most shell
which is not enough to create a covalence bond with 4 electrons of Silicons atoms

Therefore, we will replace those missing electrons connections by holes. In other words,
when boron is added to Silicon semi-conductor structure, holes will be formed.

One interesting fact is that the hole can shift from 1 location to another. In other word, if the hole
are shifting from 1 location to another, we can also say that the unpaired electrons are moving

Lecture 1 P1: Semiconductor-Physic 2

 If the Silicon lose the electron (means it receive holes), it will be postitive;y charged and if it
receive electrons, then it will be negatively charged

P-type vs N-type semi-conductor

Process of adding group 3 or 4 elements into an intrinsic silicon is called doping

If a semi-conductor is doped with B, it is called P-Type Semi-Conductor

If asemi-conductor is doped with P, it is caled N-Type Semi-Conductor

In intrinsic semiconductor, pi = ni
Under the Mass-Action law: pi ni = ni  2 = pi  2
Mass Action law

In the depletion region, there is strog electric field. Outside the depletion region, the elctric
field is 0

P-N Junction
some electrons move from n to p side and similarly, some holes move form p to n side

Diffusion current is created by concentration difference while Drift current is created by electric field

pp is the hole in the p side

nn is the free electrons in the n side
Junction voltage are rarely steady

Why ??? The intrinsic density is always 1010

Low Level Injection

As long as the junction voltage exceeds the built in voltage, the low level injection takes place on the
diffusion current that matter

VD
J = Jsat(exp( ) − 1)
VT
VD
I = Isat (exp( ) − 1)
VT
Additional Information

Lecture 1 P1: Semiconductor-Physic 3

 The start point of diagnose line

Lecture 1 P1: Semiconductor-Physic 4

 This is not always constant

Applications of Diode
1. Rectifier

Changing AC to DC

Image

Lecture 1 P1: Semiconductor-Physic 5

 Books Note
Intrisic Semiconductors
There are 2 kinds of Semiconductors:

Single-element semiconductors such as glass

Compound semiconductors, such as gallium-arsenide

Lecture 1 P1: Semiconductor-Physic 6

 Silicon Structure
Image of Silicon Lactice Stucture

Lecture 1 P1: Semiconductor-Physic 7

 Silicon atom has 4 valence electrons ( valence = outermost). Thus, in order to reach a more balance
state, it need 4 more electrons to completer its outermost shell

This can be achieved by sharing one of its valence electrons with each of its 4 neighboring atoms.
Each pair of shared electrons forms covalence bond.

At absolute zero (0 K), no electrons are available to conduct electric current. Thus, at such low
tempereature, silicons behaves as an insulator. However, at room temperature, sufficient enery exist
to break some covalent bonds (known as thermal generation) and free electrons are able to conduct
current (if electric field is applied)

When "free" electrons move away, it leaves "holes" which carries positive charge with equal
magnitude

⟹ More number of free electrons and holes, more conductivity of silicon

Concentrations of free electrons and holes

Concentration refer to the number of charge carries per unti volume (cm3 )
In the process where free electrons and holes move freely throughout the structure, there will be
some electrons that fills up the holes. This process is known as Recombination

The recombination rate is proportional to number of free electrons and holes which is determined by
thermal generation rate. At thermal equilibrium, recombination rate is equal to generation rate.

Concentration of free electrons n is equal to the concentration of holes p

n = p = ni
Sometimes, it is useful to express the product of holes and electrons concentration

p . n = n2i = p2i

where ni , pi denotes the number of free electrons and holes respectively in a unti volume (cm3 )

ni = B T 3/2  e−Eg /2kb T

Most of the problem we use the value 1020  /cm6 for n2i

Where B is material-dependent parameter: 7.3 x 1015 cm−3 K −3/2 for Silicon

T is temperature in K
Eg is bandgap energy: 1.12eV for silicon
kb is Boltzmann's constant :  8.62 x 10−5 eV /K = 1.38064852 × 10−23  m2 .kg.s−2 .K −1

Lecture 1 P1: Semiconductor-Physic 8

 ⟹ Interesting to note that bandgap energy Eg is the minimum energy required to break a covalent
bond and thus generate an electron-hole pair

Exercise Calculating number of free electrons and holes

Calculate the value of ni for silicon at room temperature (T ≃ 300K)

Doped Semiconductor
Those intrinsic silicon crystal decribed above has equal concentrations of free electron and holes
which is unlikely to produce current at roon temperature. Thus, we neeed to increase either
concentration of holes or electrons to increase conductivity through the process called doping

What is doping?

Doping incolves introducing impurity atoms into silicon crystal structure in sufficient numbers to
substantially increase concentrations of either holes or electrons but little or no change made to
structure

N-Type Semiconductor

N-type image structure

Lecture 1 P1: Semiconductor-Physic 9

 To increase the concentration of free electrons, n, silicon is doped with an element with a
valence of 5 such as P - phosphorus ⇒ called n-type

Since phosphrus has 5 electrons in the outermost shell, 4 electrons will from the covalence bond
with the neighboring atoms while the rest tunrs into free electron

Phosphorus impurity is called a donor

If concentration of donor atoms is ND , where ND is much greater than ni and also much larger
than pn , concentration of free electrons in n-type is

nn = ND + pn ≃ ND
The subscript n denots n-type. Since we have the eq of intrinsic semiconductor

p n nn = ni   2
Thus, the concentration of holes in extrinsic n-type is

ni   2
pn ≃
ND
⟹ Since concentration of electrons are much large than holes in n-type, electrons are said to be
the majority and holes is the minority

P-Type Semiconductor

Lecture 1 P1: Semiconductor-Physic 10

 P-Type Semiconductor

To increase the concentration of holes, p, silicon is doped with an element with a valence of 3
such as B - boron ⇒ p-type
Since boron has 3 electrons in the outermost shell, 3 will form covanlence bond with the
neighboring atoms while the rest is holes which accepts free electrons

Boron impurity is called an acceptor

If concentration of acceptor is NA , where NA ≫ ni and also much larger than np then the
holes concentration is

pp = NA + np ≃ NA
Using the relationship intrinsic semiconductor

p p np = ni   2
The concentration of free electrons extrinsic p-type is

ni   2
np ≃
NA
Exercise finding electrons and holes concentration

Lecture 1 P1: Semiconductor-Physic 11

 Consider an n-type silicon for which the dopant concentration ND = 1017 /cm3 . Find the electrons
and hole concentration at T = 300K .

nn ≃ ND = 1017 /cm3

Current Flow in Semiconductors

There are 2 different mechanism for the movement of charge carries: drift and diffusion

Drift Current
When an electrical field E is establised in semiconductor, holes are accelerated in the direction of E
while electrons accelerated opposite

Holes

acquire a velocity

vp−drif t = μp E
(Where μp is a constant called hole mobility . For intrinsic silicon μp = 480 cm2 /V .s )
Drift Current flowing through bar is

Ip = Aqpvp−drif t
Substituting for vp−drif t

Ip = Aqpμp E
Current Density
I

Lecture 1 P1: Semiconductor-Physic 12

 Ip
Jp = = qpμp E
A
Free electrons

acquire a drift veloctiy

vn−drif t = −μn E
(where μn is the electron mobility. For intrinsic silicon μe = 1350cm2 /V .s )
Eecltrons drifting from right to left result in a current componet from left to right

In = −Aqnvn−drif t = −Aqnμn E
Current density
In
Jn = = qnμn E
A
1. Total Drift Current Density

J = Jp + Jn = q(pμp + nμn )E
2. Relationship can be written as:

E
J = σE =
ρ
3. Where conductivity σ

σ = q(pμp + nμn )
4. Resistivity ρ

1 1
ρ≡ =
σ q(pμp + nμn )
5. Ohm's Law

E
ρ=    (Ω.cm)
J
Example finding resistivity

Lecture 1 P1: Semiconductor-Physic 13

 Diffusion Current

Lecture 1 P1: Semiconductor-Physic 14

 Occur when the density of charge carries is not uniform. For instances, if by some mechanism the
concentrration of holes is higher in 1 part of piece of silicon than in another. Then holes will difuse
form the higher concentration region to the lower

Image of Hole Current Diffusion

Assume holes is at left side, this will give rise and maintain concentration profile which cause
holes to diffuse from left to right

Resulting in hole current in x-direction

Hole Current Diffusion

Image of graph of hole diffusion current

Magnitude of current at nay point is proportional to the slop of concentration profile or so called
concentration gradient

∂p(x)
Jp = −qDp
∂x
where Jp is the hole-current density (A/cm2 ).

Lecture 1 P1: Semiconductor-Physic 15

 q is the magnitude of electron charge.
Dp is a constant called the diffusion constant or diffusivity of holes. For intrinsic silicon, Dp =
12  cm2 /s
p(x) is hole concentration at point x
gradient (dp/dx) is negative resulting in a positive current in x-direction

Electron Current Diffusion

Image of graph of current diffusion current

Magnitude of current at nay point is proportional to the slop of concentration profile or so called
concentration gradient

∂n (x)
Jn = qDn
∂x
where Jp is the hole-current density (A/cm2 ).

q is the magnitude of electron charge.

Dn is a constant called the diffusion constant or diffusivity of electrons For intrinsic silicon,
Dn = 35  cm2 /s
p(x) is electron concentration at point x
gradient (dp/dx) is positive resulting in a negative current in x-direction

Exercise finding diffusion current

Lecture 1 P1: Semiconductor-Physic 16

 Einstein Relationship
The relationship between diffusion constant and mobility

Dn Dp
= = VT
μn μp
Where VT = kT  / q is known as thermal voltage

The p-n Juction

The FULL Explanation

The Physical Structure

Lecture 1 P1: Semiconductor-Physic 17

 It consist of p-type and n-type in close contact with each other

In actual practice, the p and n regions are part of the same silitcon structure. Therefore, the pn
juction is formed within a single silicon crystal with region of different doping

The Diffusion Current ID

Because the concentration of holes in the p side is higher than of n side, holes will diffuse
across the junction from p to n side ⟹ Result in diffused current from p→n

Similarly, the concentration of electrons is higher in n side than of p side, electrons will
diffuse from n to p side ⟹ But still result in diffused current from p→n
⟹ This 2 current componets add together and create Diffused Current ID from p → n
The Depletion Region

After those holes and electrons diffused, they quickly recombine with some of majority in the
other side and thus holes and free electrons disappear from the scene

It follows that a carrier-depletion region will exist in both side with n-side is positively
charged and p side is negatively charged

Lecture 1 P1: Semiconductor-Physic 18

 The charges on both side creates an electric field E to be established in the direction as
above figure. Hence a potential differnce is created with n side at a positive voltage relative
to p side

Why can't anymore holes or electrons diffused and recombined after the depletion region is
created?

The answer is that after the depletion region is created, it creates an electric field with
the direction n → p. This will stop all holes from moving to the right and all free
electrons moving to the left

This voltage will act like a barrier. The larger the barrier voltage, the smaller numbers
of carries will be able to cross the juction and hence lower the magnitude of diffusion
current

The Drift Current IS

Some of the thermal generated holes in the n material move toward the junction and reach
the edge of the depletion region. There, they experience the electric field in the depletion
region, which sweeps them across that region into the p side and vice versa for free
electrons

The holes in n move to p and the free electrons from p move to n which boh resulting in
creating Drift Current Is in the direction n → p

1. Diffusion Current ID is from p →n

2. The Depletion Region:

n side is positively charged

p side is negatively charged

Form an Electric Field in direction form n → p

Voltage is establish wih positive voltage is in n side relative to p side

3. Drift Current IS is from n → p

The Equilibrium Condition

Under an open-circuit conditions, no external current exist and therefore 2 opposite current must
equal in magnitude

ID = IS
This equilibrium condition is maintained by the barrier voltage

What if for some reason ID exceeds IS and vice versa?

Lecture 1 P1: Semiconductor-Physic 19

 If ID exceeds IS then more bounded charge will be uncovered on both side, the depletion
region is widen and voltage across V0 will increase ⟹ ID will decrease until ID = IS

The Junction Built-in Voltage

With no external voltage apllied, barrier voltage V0

NA ND Pp
V0 = VT ln( ) = VT ln ( )
ni   2 Pn
recall: VT = kT /q
Where pp ,  pn are the p concentration in p type and electrons concentration in n type

Width of and charge stored in Depletion Region

Image of Equilibrium pn junction

Lecture 1 P1: Semiconductor-Physic 20

 Explain

The figure above show that a junction which NA > ND

Lecture 1 P1: Semiconductor-Physic 21

 We denote minority-carrier concentrations in both sides by np0 ,  pn0 with subscript “0” signifying
equilibrium

depletion region extends in both the p and n materials and that equal amounts of charge exist on
both sides (Q+ and Q-). However, since usually unequal dopings NA  and ND are used, width
of the depletion layer will not be the same on the two sides

If we denote xp ,  xn to be the width of depletion region in p and n side, respectively.

Then Charge on n side is:

∣Q+ ∣ = qAxn ND
Then Charge on p side is:

∣Q− ∣ = qAxp NA
where A is a cross-sectional area

CHARGE EQUALITY CONDITION

xn NA
qAxn ND = qAxp NA ⟹ =
xp ND
TOTAL WIDTH OF DEPLETION REGION

2ϵs 1 1
W = xn + xp = ( + ) V0
q NA ND
where ϵs is the electrical permitivity of silicon

11.7ϵ0 = 11.7 x 10−14  F /cm = 1.04 x 10−12  F /cm

Most used: 11.7 x (8.8542 x 10−12   C 2 /N.m2 )

xn ,  xp in terms of W

NA
xn = W
NA + ND

ND
xp = W
NA + ND
Charge stored on either side of depletion in terms of W

Lecture 1 P1: Semiconductor-Physic 22

 Qj = ∣Q+ ∣ = ∣Q − ∣

NA ND NA ND
Qj = Aq ( ) W = A 2ϵs q ( ) V0
NA + ND NA + ND
Exercise

Lecture 1 P1: Semiconductor-Physic 23

 Derivation of Electric Field and Potential of PN Junction

Lecture 1 P1: Semiconductor-Physic 24

 General Image of Derivation of Potenial and Electric filed

According to point form of Gauss's Law for Electrostatic Field

ρ
∇.D = ρv ⟹ ∇.E =
ϵs
Thus, electric field in terms of ρ is

1
E(x) = ∫ ρ(x)dx
ϵs
Image of Derivation of Maximum Electric Field at PN junction

Lecture 1 P1: Semiconductor-Physic 25

 For electric field in the p side

1 x −qNA
E(x) = ∫ −qNA dx = (x + xp )
ϵs −xp ϵ
For electric field in the n side

1 xn qND
E(x) = ∫ qND dx = (xn − x)
ϵs x ϵ
Right at the Junction where x = 0 (it means n side)

qND −qNA
⟹ Emax = xn = xp
ϵ ϵ
Contradiction of the sign when applying this equation

If we apply this equation, we must agree that xn and xp are only represented as "distance" not
"coordinate" (coordinate have + and - sign)

Lecture 1 P1: Semiconductor-Physic 26

 We must accept this because in order to let voltage positive in both case, this E must have -
sign in each so that it can eliminate the - sign in voltage equation

BUT what about in ND case, it can't eliminate the - sign ???

Graph of Electric Field

Consider the area of the triangle in the graph of E, we have:

xn
V0 = − ∫ E(x)dx
−xp

Since voltage is the integral of Electric Field, we can express voltage in terms of area of triangle
below Electric Field graph

⎧ 1 qNA
V0 = (xn + xp ) xp
2 ϵ
⟹ ⎨

⎩V0 = 1 (xn + xp )
qND
2
xn
ϵ

Lecture 1 P1: Semiconductor-Physic 27

 The pn Junction with an Applied Voltage
In this section, we will add a dc voltage into an open terminal pn junction

In fact, the barrier voltage V0 is created inside the depletion region which does not actually appear
between the junction terminals

There are 2 kinds of Applies voltage

V is applied so that p side is made more positive than n side ⇒ forward bias
V is applied so that n side is made more positive that p side ⇒ reverse bias

Reverse Bias
Reverse Bias

The externally apllied reverse-bias voltage VR is in the direction to add to the barrier voltage ⇒
Increase effecting barrier volatge (V0 + VR )
This ends up massively reduce diffusion current approximately to ID ≃ 0 and therefore the current
in the circuit is apprx. equal to the drift current in depletion region

Width of Depletion Region and Charged Stored on either side

Lecture 1 P1: Semiconductor-Physic 28

 2ϵs 1 1
W = xn + xp = ( + ) (V0 + VR)
q NA ND
NA ND
Qj = A 2ϵs q ( ) (V0 + VR)
NA + ND

NOTICE here that if the voltage is reversed in reversed bias case, the voltage VR should be
NEGATIVE which turns V0 + VR into V0 + (−VR ) = V0 − VR
So we can understand that VA = − Apllied Voltage

Forward Bias
Forward Bias

Here the applies voltage VF is in the direction that subtracts built-in voltage V0 resulting (V0 − VF )
This narrow the depletion region width W , enable more holes to diffuse from p to n and electrons
from n to p. Thus the diffusion current ID increases substantially

Therefore, current in external circuit is of the difference of

I = ID − IS

Lecture 1 P1: Semiconductor-Physic 29

 Capacitive Effects in the pn Juction
There are 2 charge-storage mechanisms in the pn juctions

First associated with the charge stored in the depletion region

Secodn associated with the minority-carries charge stored in n and p

The first one is easier to see when pn is reversed bias while the second occurs ONLY when
junction is forward bias

Depletion or Junction Capacitance

Explanation

When pn junction is reversed bias with voltage VR , charge is stored on either side of the
depletion region

2ϵ 1 1
Q=A ( + )(V0 + VR )
q NA ND
Thus, for a given pn junction

Q=α V0 + VR
Where

2ϵ 1 1
α=A ( + )
q NA ND
Thus Q is nonlinear with VR . Therefore, it is difficult for us to define a capacitance that accounts
for the need to change Q whenever VR is changed

Lecture 1 P1: Semiconductor-Physic 30

 We can, however, assume that the junction is operating at a "bias point" where Q is indicated as
in figure and define C as

dQJ ∣
CJ =
dVR ∣VR =VQ

Under zero reverse bias

ϵ qϵ NA ND
Cj0 = =
Wd 2V0 NA + ND
Difference between the books and teacher slide

qϵ NA ND
Cj0 = A
2V0 NA + ND
⟹ Under a reverse bias where VR is voltage applied

qϵ NA ND
Cj =
2(V0 − VR) NA + ND

Expressing Cj in terms of Cj0

Cj0
Cj =
1+ VR
V0

Graded Junction (optional)

If the doping concentration is made to change abruptly at the junction boundary. Such a junction
is known as an abrupt junction.

There is another type of pn junction in which the carrier concentration is made to change
gradually from one side of the junction to the other. To allow for such a graded junction

Cj0
Cj = VR m
(1 + V0
)

where m is the constant called grading coefficient whose values range from 1/3 to 1/2

Lecture 1 P1: Semiconductor-Physic 31

 Additional
Drift Currents
Electrical resistivity ρ and its reciprocal, conductivity σ characterize current flow in a material

Drift Current Density j

j = Qv
(C/cm3 )(cm/s) = A/cm3

Where j is current density, charge in coulombs moving through an area of unit cross section

Q is charge density, charge in unti volume

v is velocity of charge in an E field

Total Current
Current in a semiconductor have both drift and diffusion components

∂n
JnT = qμn nE + qDn
∂x
∂p
JpT = qμp pE − qDp
∂x
Apply Einstein's relationship

1 ∂n
⟹ Jn = qμn n(E + VT )
T
n ∂x
1 ∂p
⟹ JnT = qμn n(E − VT )
p ∂x

Lecture 1 P1: Semiconductor-Physic 32