EC8353 ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS

J.POORNIMA,AP/EEE
CHENNAI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
 OBJECTIVE
The student should be made to:
 Understand the structure of basic electronic devices.
 Be exposed to active and passive circuit elements.
 Familiarize the operation and applications of transistor like BJT and
FET.
 Explore the characteristics of amplifier gain and frequency response.
 Learn the required functionality of positive and negative feedback
systems.
 OUTLINE OF SYLLABUS
• UNIT I PN JUNCTION DEVICES
• UNIT II TRANSISTORS AND THYRISTORS
• UNIT III AMPLIFIERS
• UNIT IV MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS AND DIFFERENTIAL
AMPLIFIER
• UNIT V FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS AND OSCILLATORS
 WHAT IS ELECTRONICS?
Electronics is that branch of science and technology which makes use of
the controlled motion of electrons through different media and vacuum.
The ability to control electron flow is usually applied to information
handling or device control.
APPLICATION OF ELECTRONICS
 Communication and entertainment
 Military
 Medical science
 Defence
ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
 AC T I V E COMPONENT.
 PA S SI V E COMPONENT.
2
 Classification
 Active components
Rely on a source of energy and can inject power into a circuit
 Passive components
Can't introduce net energy into the circuit and can't rely on a
source of power
 Electromechanical
can carry out electrical operations by using moving parts or by
using electrical connections

3 Dr Gnanasekaran Thangavel 7/11/2018

 Active
components
 Semiconductors
Diodes
Transistors
 Integrated circuits
 Optoelectronic devices
 Display technologies
 Vacuum tubes (valves)
 Discharge devices
 Power sources

4 Dr Gnanasekaran Thangavel 7/11/2018

 Passive
components
 Resistors
 Capacitors
 Magnetic (inductive) devices
 Memristor
 Networks
 Transducers, sensors, detectors
 Antennas
 Assemblies, modules

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 Electromechanic
al
Passive components that use piezoelectric effect:
Components that use the effect to generate or filter high frequencies
Crystal – a ceramic crystal used to generate precise frequencies (See
the Modules class below for complete oscillators)
Ceramic resonator – Is a ceramic crystal used to generate semi-
precise frequencies
Ceramic filter – Is a ceramic crystal used to filter a band of
frequencies such as in radio receivers
 Surface acoustic wave (SAW) filters
Components that use the effect as mechanical transducers.
Ultrasonic motor – Electric motor that uses the piezoelectric effects
For piezo buzzers and microphones,
6 Dr Gnanasekaran Thangavel 7/11/2018
 UNIT I PN JUNCTION DEVICES
PN junction diode –structure, operation and V-
characteristics, diffusion
I and transient capacitance -
Rectifiers – Half Wave and Full Wave Rectifier,– Display
devices- LED, Laser diodes- Zener diode characteristics-
Zener Reverse characteristics – Zener as regulator
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OyC02DWq3mI
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d4zO39K_ce8
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AspBbh_jOuk
4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UMgOG4OqBT0
5. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kl8IOESVWlM

7 Dr Gnanasekaran Thangavel 7/11/2018

 PN junction
diode
Definition
“A semiconductor device with two terminals, typically
allowing the flow of current in one direction only.
“A diode is a specialized electronic component with two
electrodes called the anode and the cathode. They are
made with semiconductor materials such as silicon,
germanium, or selenium. The fundamental property of a
diode is its tendency to conduct electric current in only
one direction.”
“A Diode is an electronic device that allows current to
flow in one direction only. It is a semiconductor that
8 consists
a Dr Gpna- of . They are used most commonly to
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Semiconductors and Physical Operation
of Diodes
 Semiconductors
 Doping
• n-type material
• p-type material

 pn-Junctions
• forward, reverse, breakdown
• solar cells, LEDs, capacitance
Periodic Table of Elements
Relevant Columns: III IV V
The Silicon
Atom
- - 10 core electrons:
1s22s22p6

Nucleus:
14 protons
14 neutrons 4 valence

- electrons
-

The 4 valence electrons are responsible

for forming covalent bonds
 Silicon Crystal
Each Si atom has four nearest neighbors — one for each valence electron

0.5 nm
 Two-dimensional Picture of
Si
note: each line ( —) represents a valence electron

At T=0 Kelvin, all of

Si the valence electrons
are participating in
covalent bonds

There are no “free”

electrons, therefore no
current can flow in
the silicon 
INSULATOR

covalent bond
Silicon at Room
Temperature
For T>0 K, the silicon atoms
vibrate in the lattice.
This is what we humans
sense as “heat.”

Occasionally, the
vibrations cause a covalent
bond to break and a valence
electron is free to move about
the silicon.
 Silicon at Room
Temperature
For T>0 K, the silicon atoms
vibrate in the lattice.
This is what we humans
sense as “heat.”
-
Occasionally, the
vibrations cause a covalent
bond to break and a valence
electron is free to move about
the silicon.

- = free electron
 Silicon at Room
Temperature
The broken covalent bond site
is now missing an electron.

This is called a “hole”

-
The hole is a missing negative
charge and has a charge of +1.
hole
= a hole

+
Current Flow in
Silicon Bond breaking
a bar of silicon due to:
-heat (phonons)
-light (photons)
- * +
Conductance is
proportional to
the number of
I electrons and
holes:
+ - Si resistance
depends on temp.
V and light
 Some important
facts
The number of electrons = the number of holes
that is, n = p in pure silicon
this is called intrinsic material
High temp more electrons/holes  lower resistance
Very few electrons/holes at room temperature
n=1.5x1010 per cm3, but nSi = 5x1022 per cm3
n/nSi = 3x10-13 (less than 1 in a trillion Si bonds are broken
This is a SEMICONDUCTOR
 Important Facts
(cont.)
Band Gap: energy required to break a covalent bond and
free an electron
Eg = 0.66 eV (germanium)
Eg = 1.12 eV (silicon)
Eg = 3.36 eV (gallium nitride)
Metals have Eg= 0
very large number of free electrons  high conductance
Insulators have Eg > 5 eV
almost NO free electrons  zero conductance
Dopin
g
Intentionally adding impurities to a semiconductor to create
more free electrons OR more holes (extrinsic material)
n-type material
more electrons than holes (n>p)
p-type material
more holes than electrons (p>n)
HOW???
Periodic Table of Elements
Relevant Columns: III IV V
 n-type silicon
add atoms from column V of the periodic table

Column V elements have 5 valence

electrons
Si
Four of the electrons form covalent bonds
- with Si, but the 5th electron is unpaired.

P Because the 5th electron is weakly bound,

it almost always breaks away from the P
atom
This is now a free electron.
 VERY IMPORTANT
POINT
The phosphorus atom has donated an
electron to the semiconductor (Column V
Si atoms are called donors)
The phosphorus is missing one of its
-
electrons, so it has a positive charge (+1)
P+ The phosphorus ion is bound to the
silicon, so this +1 charge can’t move!

The number of electrons is equal to

the number of phos. atoms: n =
Nd
Periodic Table of Elements
Relevant Columns: III IV V
 p-type silicon
add atoms from column III of the periodic table

Column III elements have 3 valence electrons

that form covalent bonds with Si, but the 4th
Si electron is needed.
This 4th electron is taken from the nearby
Si=Si bond
B
 p-type silicon
add atoms from column III of the periodic table

Column III elements have 3 valence electrons

that form covalent bonds with Si, but the 4th
Si electron is needed.

hole This 4th electron is taken from the nearby

Si=Si bond
B This “stolen” electron creates a free hole.
 VERY IMPORTANT
POINT
The boron atom has accepted an electron
from the semiconductor (Column III
Si atoms are called acceptors)
The boron has one extra electron, so it
+
has a negative charge (-1)
B- The boron ion is bound to the silicon, so
this -1 charge can’t move!

The number of holes is equal to

the number of boron atoms: p = Na
 The pn
Junction

p-type n-type

anode cathode

metal
silicon oxide

doped silicon
integrated circuit diode wafer (chip)
 Dopant distribution
inside a pn junction

excess holes diffuse

to the n-type
region

p>>n n>>p

excess electrons diffuse

to the p-type region
 Dopant distribution
inside a pn junction
excess holes diffuse
to the n-type
region
- +
p>>n - + n>>p
- +

excess electrons diffuse

to the p-type region

DEPLETION REGION:

p~0, and acceptor ions are n~0, and donor ions are
exposed - exposed +
 Voltage in a pn
junction - +
p>>n - + n>>p
- +
charge, (x)
+ x
-

x
1
electric field, E( x) 
  
0

E(x) x
( x)dx

V ( x)   E( x)dx
~0.7 volts
voltage, (for Si) 0

V(x) x
 Zero
Bias - +
p>>n - + n>>p
- +

voltage, ~0.7 volts

(for Si)
V(x) x

At zero bias (vD=0), very few electrons or holes can overcome this built-in
voltage barrier of ~ 0.7 volts (and exactly balanced by diffusion)
 iD = 0
 Forward
Bias - +
p>>n - + n>>p
- +

voltage, 0.65 volts

0.50 volts
V(x) 0.0 volts x
vD

As the bias (vD), increases toward 0.7V, more electrons and holes can
overcome the built-in voltage barrier . iD > 0
 Reverse
Bias - +
p>>n - + n>>p
- +

voltage, 1 / 2Is
V(x) 0.0 volts x

-5 volts
1 / 2 Is
Is
vD

As the bias (vD) becomes negative, the barrier becomes larger. Only
electrons and holes due to broken bond s contribute to the diode
current.  iD = -Is
Breakdow
n - +
p>>n - + n>>p
- +

voltage, large reverse current

V(x) 0.0 volts x

-50 volts
|I| >> Is
vD

As the bias (vD) becomes very negative, the barrier becomes larger.
Free electrons and holes due to broken bonds are accelerated to
high energy (>Eg) and break other covalent bonds – generating
more electrons and holes (avalanche).
 Solar Cell
(Photovoltaic) - +
p>>n - + n>>p
- +
light

voltage, ~0.7 volts

(for Si)
V(x) x

Iph
Rload

Light hitting the depletion region causes a covalent bond to break.

The free electron and hole are pushed out of the depletion region
by the built-in potential (0.7v).
 Light Emitting Diode
(LED)
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light
source. It is a p–n junction diode that emits light when activated.
When a suitable voltage is applied to the leads, electrons are able
to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing
energy in the form of photons. This effect is called
electroluminescence, and the colour of the light (corresponding to
the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of
the semiconductor.

37 Dr Gnanasekaran Thangavel 7/11/2018

 Light Emitting Diode
(LED) - +
p>>n - + n>>p
- +

photon

voltage, 2.0 volts

1.5 volts
V(x) 0.0 volts x
vD

In forward bias, an electron and hole collide and self-annihilate in the

depletion region. A photon with the gap energy is emitted. Only occurs
in some materials (not silicon).
 Junction
Capacitance
semiconductor-”insulator”-semiconductor

- +
p>>n - + n>>p A
- +

W
n=p~0

=11.9

The parasitic (unwanted) junction capacitance is

Cj = eA/W, where W depends on the bias voltage
 Junction Capacitance
(Cj)
The junction capacitance must be charged and
discharged every time the diode is turned on and off
Transistors are made of pn junctions. The capacitance
due to these junctions limits the high frequency
performance of transistors remember, Zc = 1/jwC becomes
a short circuit at high frequencies (Zc  0) this means that
a pn junction looks like a short at high frequency
This is a fundamental principle that limits the
performance of all electronic devices
 HALF WAVE
R
RECTIFIE
The Half wave rectifier is a circuit, which
converts an ac voltage to dc voltage.
The primary of the transformer is
connected to ac supply. This induces an
ac voltage across the secondary of the
transformer.
During the positive half cycle of the input
voltage the polarity of the voltage across
the secondary forward biases the diode.
As a result a current IL flows through the
load resistor, RL. The forward biased
diode offers a very low resistance and
hence the voltage drop across it is very
small. Thus the voltage appearing across
 HALF WAVE RECTIFIER
…….
During the negative half cycle of the input voltage the polarity of
the secondary voltage gets reversed. As a result, the diode is
reverse biased.
Practically no current flows through the circuit and almost no
voltage is developed across the resistor. All input voltage
appears across the diode itself.
Hence we conclude that when the input voltage is going through
its positive half cycle, output voltage is almost the same as the
input voltage and during the negative half cycle no voltage is
available across the load. This explains the unidirectional
42
pulsating dc waveform obtained as output. The process
Dr Gnanasekaran Thangavel 7/11/2018
of
removing one half the input signal to establish a dc level is aptly
 The output
waveform

43 Dr Gnanasekaran Thangavel 7/11/2018

 FULL WAVE
RECTIFIER
• A Full Wave Rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac
voltage into a pulsating dc voltage using both half cycles
of the applied ac voltage.
ctsItduring
uses two diodes
the other halfof which one
conducts during one halfcycle
cycle while the other conduof
the applied ac voltage.
 The output
waveform

45 Dr Gnanasekaran Thangavel 7/11/2018

 Full-Wave Rectification – circuit with center-
tapped transformer
 Positive cycle, D2 off, D1 conducts;
Vo – Vs + V = 0
Vo = Vs - V

 Negative cycle, D1 off, D2

conducts; Vo – Vs + V = 0
Vo = Vs - V

 Since a rectified output voltage occurs during both positive and

negative cycles of the input signal, this circuit is called a full-
wave rectifier.
 Also notice that the polarity of the output voltage for both
cycles is the same
 Vs = Vpsin t

Vp

V

-V

Notice again that the peak voltage of Vo is lower since Vo = Vs -

V

• Vs < V, diode off, open circuit, no current flow,Vo = 0V

 Full-Wave Rectification –Bridge Rectifier
 Positive cycle, D1 and D2 conducts, D3 and D4 off;
+ V + Vo + V – Vs = 0
Vo = Vs - 2V

 Negative cycle, D3 and D4 conducts, D1 and D2 off

+ V + Vo + V – Vs = 0
Vo = Vs - 2V

 Also notice that the polarity of the output voltage for both cycles is the
same
 A full-wave center-tapped rectifier circuit is shown in Fig. 3.1. Assume that for each
diode, the cut-in voltage, V = 0.6V and the diode forward resistance, rf is 15. The
load resistor, R = 95 . Determine:
 peak output voltage, Vo across the load, R
 Sketch the output voltage, Vo and label its peak value.

25: 1

125 V (peak
voltage)
( sine wave )
 SOLUTION
 peak output voltage, Vo

Vs (peak) = 125 / 25 = 5V
V +ID(15) + ID (95) - Vs(peak) = 0 ID = (5 – 0.6) / 110
= 0.04 A Vo (peak) = 95 x 0.04 = 3.8V

Vo

3.8V

t
Duty Cycle: The fraction of the wave cycle over which the
diode is conducting.
EXAMPLE 3.1 – Half Wave Rectifier
Determine the currents and voltages of the half-wave rectifier circuit. Consider the half-wave rectifier circuit
shown in Figure.
Assume and . Also a ssume that
Determine the peak diode current, maximum reverse-bias diode voltage, the fraction of the wave cycle over
which the diode is conducting.

-VR + VB + 18.6 = 0
VR = 24.6 V
- VR A simple half-wave battery charger circuit
- +

+
 The peak inverse voltage (PIV) of the diode is the
peak value of the voltage that a diode can withstand
when it is reversed biased
 Type of PIV
Rectifier
Half Wave Peak value of the input secondary voltage, Vs (peak)
Full Wave :
2Vs(peak) - V
Center-
Tapped
Full Wave: Bridge
Vs(peak)- V
 Example: Half Wave Rectifier
Given a half wave rectifier with input primary voltage, Vp = 80 sin t and the
transformer turns ratio, N1/N2 = 6. If the diode is ideal diode, (V = 0V), determine the
value of the peak inverse voltage.

1. Get the input of the secondary voltage:

80 / 6 = 13.33 V

1. PIV for half-wave = Peak value of the input voltage = 13.33 V

EXAMPLE 3.2

Calculate the transformer turns ratio and the PIV voltages for each type of the full wave rectifier
a) center-tapped
b) bridge

Assume the input voltage of the transformer is 220 V (rms), 50 Hz from ac main line source. The desired peak
output voltage is 9 volt; also assume diodes cut-in voltage = 0.6 V.
Solution: For the centre-tapped transformer circuit the peak voltage of the transformer secondary
is required

The peak output voltage = 9V

Output voltage, Vo = Vs - V
Hence, Vs = 9 + 0.6 = 9.6V
Peak value = Vrms x 2
So, Vs (rms) = 9.6 / 2 = 6.79
V

The turns ratio of the

primary to each secondary
winding is
Solution: For the bridge transformer circuit the peak voltage of the transformer secondary is
required

The peak output voltage = 9V

Output voltage, Vo = Vs -
2V Hence, Vs = 9 + 1.2 =
10.2 V
Peak value = Vrms x 2
So, Vs (rms) = 10.2 / 2 =
7.21 V

The turns ratio of the primary to each secondary winding is

The PIV of each diode: Vs(peak)- V = 10.2 - 0.6 = 9.6 V

 Laser diodes
 LASER — Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
 The Laser is a source of highly directional, monochromatic, coherent light.
 The Laser operates under a “stimulated emission” process.
 The semiconductor laser differs from other lasers (solid, gas, and liquid lasers):
 small size (typical on the order of 0.1 × 0.1 × 0.3 mm3)
 high efficiency
 the laser output is easily modulated at high frequency by controlling the junction current
 low or medium power (as compared with ruby or CO2 laser, but is comparable to the He-Ne
laser)
 particularly suitable for fiber optic communication
 Important applications of the semiconductor lasers:
 optical-fiber communication, video recording, optical reading, high-speed laser
printing. high-resolution gas spectroscopy, atmospheric pollution monitoring.

60 Dr Gnanasekaran Thangavel 7/11/2018

 Comparison between an LD and LED

 Laser Diode  LED

 Stimulated radiation  Spontaneous radiation
 narrow line width  broad spectral
 coherent  incoherent
 higher output power  lower output power
 a threshold device  no threshold current
 strong temperature dependence  weak temperature dependence
 higher coupling efficiency to a fiber  lower coupling efficiency

61
 Laser Diode Construction
 The figure shows a simplified
construction of a laser diode, which is
similar to a light emitting diode
(LED).
 It uses gallium arsenide doped with
elements such as selenium, aluminum,
or silicon to produce P type and N
type semiconductor materials.
 While a laser diode has an additional
active layer of undoped (intrinsic)
gallium arsenide have the thickness
only a few nanometers, sandwiched
between the P and N layers, effectively
creating a PIN diode (P type-Intrinsic-
62
N type). It is in this layer that the laser 7/11/2018
 How Laser Diode Work?
 Every atom according to the quantum
theory, can energies only within a certain
discrete energy level. Normally, the atoms
are in the lowest energy state or ground
state.
 When an energy source given to the atoms
in the ground state can be excited to go to
one of the higher levels. This process is
called absorption.
 After staying at that level for a very short
duration, the atom returns to its initial
ground state, emitting a photon in the
process, This process is called
spontaneous emission.
6
TheDsreGnantawseokaranpThraoncgaeve absorption and
7/11/2018
 How Laser Diode Work?
 In case the atom, still in an excited state, is struck by an outside photon having
precisely the energy necessary for spontaneous emission, the outside photon is
increased by the one given up by the excited atom, Moreover, both the photons
are released from the same excited state in the same phase, This process, called
stimulated emission, is fundamental for laser action (shown in above figure).
 In this process, the key is the photon having exactly the same wavelength as that
of the light to be emitted.
Amplification and Population Inversion
 When favorable conditions are created for the stimulated emission, more and more
atoms are forced to emit photons thereby initiating a chain reaction and releasing
an enormous amount of energy.
 This results in a rapid build up of energy of emitting one particular wavelength
(monochromatic light), travelling coherently in a particular, fixed direction. This
64 procDersGsnainsaseckaarlalneTdhanagmavepl lification by stimulated 7/11/2018
Laser Diode
 Laser diode is an improved LED, in the sense that uses stimulated emission in semiconductor from
optical transitions between distribution energy states of the valence and conduction bands with
optical resonator structure such as Fabry-Perot resonator with both optical and carrier
confinements.
Laser Diode Characteristics
Nanosecond & even picoseconds response time (GHz BW)
Spectral width of the order of nm or less
High output power (tens of mW)
Narrow beam (good coupling to single mode fibers)
Laser diodes have three distinct radiation modes namely,
longitudinal, lateral and transverse modes.
In laser diodes, end mirrors provide strong optical feedback in
longitudinal direction, so by roughening the edges and cleaving
the facets, the radiation can be achieved in longitudinal
direction rather than lateral direction.
Zener Diode
A Zener diode is a type of diode that permits current not only in
the forward direction like a normal diode, but also in the reverse
direction if the voltage is larger than the breakdown voltage
known as "Zener knee voltage" or "Zener voltage".
 Zener Diode - Voltage Regulator (reverse
biased)

68 Dr Gnanasekaran Thangavel 7/11/2018

 References
1. David A. Bell ,”Electronic Devices and Circuits”, Prentice Hall of India,.
2. staff.iium.edu.my/.../L6%20and%20L7%20full%20wave%20rectifier,%20PIV.ppt
3. www.ece.neu.edu/.../eceg201/.../Semiconductors_and_Physical_Operation_of_Diodes...
4. http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/diode/diode_3.html.
5. http://www.electronicsandyou.com/electronics-basics/diode.html
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_diode
7. http://www.circuitstoday.com/half-wave-rectifiers
8. http://www.visionics.a.se/html/curriculum/Experiments/HW%20Rectifier/Half%20Wave%20Rectifi

er1.html
9. eshare.stust.edu.tw/EshareFile/2010_5/2010_5_4fc2dc4c.ppt
10. https://ece.uwaterloo.ca/~ece477/Lectures/ece477_4_0.ppt
11. https://www.elprocus.com/laser-diode-construction-working-applications/
12. www.ohio.edu/people/starzykj/network/Class/.../Lecture5%20Diode%20Circuits.ppt

69 Dr Gnanasekaran Thangavel 7/11/2018

 Other
presentations
http://www.slideshare.net/drgst/presentations

70 Dr Gnanasekaran Thangavel 7/11/2018

 Thank
You

Questions and Comments?

71 Dr Gnanasekaran Thangavel 7/11/2018