Mutah University

Electronics I
Dr. Ziyad Tarawneh
 Topics to be Discussed
Introduction, Semi Conductor materials, Energy levels, Intrinsic and
Extrinsic Semiconductors
PN Junction Diode, Diode resistances, Diode current Equation, Forward
and Reverse Biased Diode
Diode Equivalent circuits, Diode as a Non-linear device, ac and dc
resistance of a diode, Reverse Recovery time, Diode specifications
AC / DC Resistance of a Diode, Zener Diodes, Light – Emitting Diodes
(Photo Diodes)
AND / OR Gates, Half-Wave rectification, Full-wave rectification
Clippers, Series and Shunt Clippers
Clampers, Positive and Negative Clampers
 Topics to be Discussed
BJT Construction, Operation, Common Base Configuration, BJT as an
Amplifier
Common Emitter Configuration, Common Collector Configuration
BJT Biasing , Operating Point, Fixed-Bias Circuit
Voltage-Divider Bias, DC Bias with Voltage Feedback, Transistor as a
Switch
JFET Construction and characteristics, Instrumentation, JFET as
analogue switch and current source,
Depletion-Type and Enhancement-Type MOSFET, CMOS
FET Biasing – Fixed-Bias, Self-Bias and Voltage-divider. Depletion and
Enhancement-Type MOSFET

Note : This is just an outline and may change as the semester progresses
 Text Book

• ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND

CIRCUIT THEORY by Robert L.
Boylestad and Louis Nashelsky

Online Study guide

http://www.prenhall.com/boylestad/
 Recommended Book

• ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS by

Theodore F. Bogart Jr., Jeffrey S. Beasley

• FUNDAMENTALS OF MICROECTRONICS
by Behzad Razavi
Semiconductor
Diodes
 IDEAL DIODE
The ideal diode is a two-terminal device having the symbol and
characteristics as

The characteristics of an ideal diode are those of a switch that can conduct
current in only one direction
 IDEAL DIODE
One of the important parameters for the diode is the resistance at the point
or region of operation.

• If we consider the conduction region defined by the direction of ID and polarity

of VD

where VF is the forward voltage across the diode and IF is the forward current through the diode.

The ideal diode, therefore, is a short circuit for the region of conduction.

• Consider the region of negatively applied potential

where VR is reverse voltage across the diode and IR is reverse current in the diode.
 IDEAL DIODE

The ideal diode, therefore, is an open circuit in the region of nonconduction.

SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS

• The term conductor is applied to any material that will support a generous
flow of charge when a voltage source of limited magnitude is applied across its
terminals.

•An insulator is a material that offers a very low level of conductivity under
pressure from an applied voltage source.

• A semiconductor, therefore, is a material that has a conductivity level some-

where between the extremes of an insulator and a conductor.
 Conductors

Conductors have loosely bound electrons in their outer shell

These electrons require a small amount of energy to free them for
conduction
Let’s apply a potential difference across the conductor above…
The force on each electron is enough to free it from its orbit and it can jump
from atom to atom – the conductor conducts
Conductors are said to have a low resistivity / resistance
 Insulators

Insulators have tightly bound electrons in their outer shell

These electrons require a very large amount of energy to free
them for conduction
Let’s apply a potential difference across the insulator above…
The force on each electron is not enough to free it from its orbit
and the insulator does not conduct
Insulators are said to have a high resistivity / resistance
 Semiconductors
Semiconductors have a resistivity/resistance between that
of conductors and insulators

Their electrons are not free to move but a little energy will
free them for conduction

The two most common semiconductors are silicon and

germanium
 The Silicon, Si, Atom
Silicon has a valence This picture shows
of 4 i.e. 4 electrons in the shared electrons
its outer shell
Each silicon atom
shares its 4 outer
electrons with 4
neighbouring atoms
These shared electrons
– bonds – are shown as
horizontal and vertical
lines between the
atoms
 Silicon – the crystal lattice
If we extend this
arrangement
throughout a piece of
silicon…

We have the crystal

lattice of silicon

This is how silicon

looks when it is cold

It has no free electrons – it cannot conduct electricity – therefore it

behaves like an insulator
 Electron Movement in Silicon
However, if we apply
a little heat to the
silicon….

An electron may gain

enough energy to
break free of its
bond…
It is then available
for conduction and is
free to travel
throughout the
material
 Hole Movement in Silicon
Let’s take a closer
look at what the
electron has left
behind

There is a gap in the

bond – what we call
a hole

Let’s give it a little

more character…
 Hole Movement in Silicon
This hole can also
move…

An electron – in a
nearby bond – may
jump into this hole…
Effectively causing
the hole to move…
Like this…
 Heating Silicon
We have seen that,
in silicon, heat
releases electrons
from their bonds…

This creates
electron-hole pairs
which are then
available for
conduction
 Intrinsic Conduction
Take a piece of
silicon…
And apply a potential
difference across it…

This sets up an
electric field
throughout the
silicon – seen here as
dashed lines

When heat is applied an electron is

released and…
 Intrinsic Conduction
The electron feels a
force and moves in
the electric field

It is attracted to the
positive electrode
and re-emitted by the
negative electrode
 Intrinsic Conduction
Now, let’s apply
some more heat…
Another electron
breaks free…
And moves in the
electric field.
We now have a
greater current than
before…
And the silicon has
less resistance…
 Intrinsic Conduction
If more heat is
applies the process
continues…

More heat…
More current…
Less resistance…
The silicon is acting
as a thermistor
Its resistance decreases
with temperature
 Intrinsic materials
Intrinsic materials are those semiconductors that have been carefully refined to
reduce the impurities to a very low level—essentially as pure as can be made
available through modern technology.

Atomic structure: (a) germanium; (b)

silicon.

•At room temperature there are approximately 1.5x 1010 free carriers in a cubic
centimeter of intrinsic silicon material.
• At the same temperature, intrinsic germanium material will have approximately
2.5x1013 free carriers per cubic centimeter.
 Intrinsic materials

An increase in temperature of a semiconductor can result in a substantial in-

crease in the number of free electrons in the material.

•As the temperature rises from absolute zero (0 K), an increasing number of
valence electrons absorb sufficient thermal energy to break the covalent bond and
contribute to the number of free carriers.
•This increased number of carriers will increase the conductivity index and result
in a lower resistance level.
Semiconductor materials such as Ge and Si that show a reduction in resistance
with increase in temperature are said to have a negative temperature coefficient.

•The resistance of most conductors will increase with temperature. This is due to
the fact that the numbers of carriers in a conductor will not increase significantly
with temperature, but their vibration pattern about a relatively fixed location will
make it increasingly difficult for electrons to pass through.
•An increase in temperature therefore results in an increased resistance level and a
positive temperature coefficient.
 Energy Level
• There are discrete energy levels associated with each orbiting electron.

•The energy associated with each electron is measured in electron volts (eV).

•The more distance the electron from the nucleus, the higher energy state
Metals, Insulators, and Semiconductors
• For the insulator, the energy gap is typically 5 eV or more, This severely limits
the number of electrons that can enter the conduction band at room temperature.

• At 0 K or absolute zero ( -273°C), all the valence electrons of semiconductor

materials are locked in their outermost shell of the atom.
Metals, Insulators, and Semiconductors
• However, at room temperature (300 K) a large number of valence electrons
have acquired sufficient energy to leave the valence band, cross the energy gap
defined by Eg and enter the conduction band.

• The lower value Eg for germanium accounts for the increased number of
carriers in that material as compared to silicon at room temperature .

• The conductor has electrons in the conduction band even at 0 K.

 Semiconductor materials

 Semiconductor devices are typically fabricated from either silicon,

germanium (located in the column IV of the periodic table).
 Gallium arsenide is a composed semiconductor produced from gallium and
arsenic.
 Most devices are fabricated from silicon:
• Silicon one of the most abundant element in the earth’s crust (comprises
over 25 percent of the earth’s crust )
• The most recognizable form of silicon is SiO2 ( common sand)
• Common mineral that include the silicon are asbestos, mica, quartz, granite
and clay.
 In semiconductor industry, silicon must be purified to the extent that there
is no more than one impurity atom per 1010 silicon atoms, this silicon is
called intrinsic material-(pure from impurity atoms).
 Doping is the process of addition of impurities into intrinsic silicon
 Semiconductor Energy Band Model

What happens as
temperature increases?

Semiconductor energy Electron participating in

band model. EC and EV a covalent bond is in a
are energy levels at the lower energy state in the
edge of the conduction valence band. This
and valence bands. diagram represents 0 K.
 Semiconductor Energy Band Model

Semiconductor energy Electron participating in Thermal energy breaks

band model. EC and EV a covalent bond is in a covalent bonds and
are energy levels at the lower energy state in the moves the electrons up
edge of the conduction valence band. This into the conduction
and valence bands. diagram represents 0 K. band.
Carrier in Semiconductor : Electron and Holes

• At room temperature, the intrinsic (pure) silicon crystal has sufficient heat
(thermal) energy for some valence electrons to jump the gap from the valence
band into the conduction band, becoming free electrons.

• When an electron jumps to the conduction band, a vacancy is left in the

valence band creating a hole.
 Electron and Hole Current

• When a voltage is applied across a piece

of intrinsic silicon,

•The thermally generated free electrons in

the conduction band, which are free to
move randomly in the crystal structure,
are now easily attracted toward the
positive end.
This movement of free electrons is called
electron current.

• Another type of current occurs in the

valence band, where the holes created
by the free electrons exist. This current
is called hole current.
Carrier in Semiconductor : Electron and Holes
Compute the conductivity of intrinsic silicon at 300 K

To calculate the number of intrinsic carriers

− E g / 2 kT
ni ≈ pi ≅ 2.494 ×1015 e

−19
)(1.1) / 2 (1.38×10 −23 )( 300 )
ni ≈ pi ≅ 2.494 × 1015 e − (1.6×10
= 1.49 × 1016 m −3 = 1.46 ×1010 cm −3

Usually the number is made 1.5x1010 cm-3 because of the approximations

that have been made in the derivation of the equations

σ = nqµ n + pqµ p
σ = (1.5 ×1010 )(1.6 ×10 −19 )(1500) + (1.5 ×1010 )(1.6 ×10 −19 )(480)
= 4.75 × 10 −6 (ohm − cm) −1
It is interesting to note that this value is 11 order of magnitude lower that
the conductivity of copper which is a good conductor.
 EXTRINSIC MATERIALS—n- AND p-TYPE

• We can add impurities to Silicon to change the lattice characteristics. Specifically, we can
alter the particle densities (i.e., either hole or electron densities) of the lattice, such that there
are more holes than free electrons, or more free electrons than holes.

n-Type Material

The n-type is created by introducing impurity elements that have five valence electrons
(pentavalent), such as antimony, arsenic, and phosphorus (called donor atom )

Donor energy level

Donor atom
• At room temperature, thermal ionization breaks some covalent bonds, creating
free electrons in n-type materials.
• For n-type Silicon we call free electrons the majority carrier, and holes the
minority carrier.

ND+p ≈ n ≈ ND (the number of donor atoms)

p = ni2/n= ni2/ND << n

Conductivity in n-Type

σn=nqμn≈ NDqμn
p-Type Material

The p-type material is formed by doping a pure germanium or silicon crystal with
impurity atoms having three valence electrons (called acceptor atoms). The elements
most frequently used for this purpose are boron, gallium, and indium.

Acceptor energy level

Acceptor atom

• At room temperature, thermal ionization breaks some covalent bonds, creating

free holes in p-type materials.
• For p-type Silicon we call hole the majority carrier, and electrons the minority
carrier.

NA+n ≈ p ≈ NA (the number of acceptor atoms)

n = ni2/p= ni2/NA << p

Conductivity in n-Type

σp=pqμp≈ NAqμp
Energy Band Model for a Doped Semiconductor

Semiconductor with donor or n-type

dopants. The donor atoms have free
electrons with energy ED. Since ED is
close to EC, (about 0.045 eV for
phosphorous), it is easy for electrons
in an n-type material to move up into
the conduction band.
 Energy Band Model for a Doped Semiconductor
Semiconductor with donor or n-type
dopants. The donor atoms have free
electrons with energy ED. Since ED is
close to EC, (about 0.045 eV for
phosphorous), it is easy for electrons
in an n-type material to move up into
the conduction band and create
negative charge carriers.
Semiconductor with acceptor or p-type
dopants. The aaacceptor atoms have
unfilled covalent bonds with energy
state EA. Since EA is close to EV, (about
0.044 eV for boron), it is easy for
electrons in the valence band to move
up into the acceptor sites and complete
covalent bond pairs, and create holes –
positive charge carriers.
 The Phosphorus Atom
Phosphorus is
number 15 in the
periodic table

It has 15 protons and

15 electrons – 5 of
these electrons are in
its outer shell
 Doping – Making n-type Silicon
Relying on heat or
light for conduction
does not make for
reliable electronics

Suppose we remove
a silicon atom from
the crystal lattice…

and replace it with a

phosphorus atom

We now have an electron that is not bonded – it is thus free for

conduction
 Doping – Making n-type Silicon
Let’s remove another
silicon atom…
and replace it with a
phosphorus atom
As more electrons
are available for
conduction we have
increased the
conductivity of the
material
Phosphorus is called If we now apply a potential difference
the dopant across the silicon…
Extrinsic Conduction – n-type Silicon
A current will
flow
Note:
The negative
electrons move
towards the
positive
terminal
 N-type Silicon

• This type of silicon is called n-type

• This is because the majority charge carriers are
negative electrons
• A small number of minority charge carriers – holes –
will exist due to electrons-hole pairs being created in
the silicon atoms due to heat
• The silicon is still electrically neutral as the number of
protons is equal to the number of electrons
 The Boron Atom
Boron is number 5
in the periodic table

It has 5 protons and

5 electrons – 3 of
these electrons are
in its outer shell
 Doping – Making p-type Silicon
As before, we
remove a silicon
atom from the crystal
lattice…

This time we replace

it with a boron atom

Notice we have a
hole in a bond – this
hole is thus free for
conduction
 Doping – Making p-type Silicon
Let’s remove another
silicon atom…
and replace it with
another boron atom
As more holes are
available for
conduction we have
increased the
conductivity of the
material
Boron is the dopant If we now apply a potential difference
in this case across the silicon…
Extrinsic Conduction – p-type silicon
A current will
flow – this time
carried by
positive holes
Note:
The positive
holes move
towards the
negative terminal
 P-type Silicon

• This type of silicon is called p-type

• This is because the majority charge carriers are positive
holes
• A small number of minority charge carriers – electrons –
will exist due to electrons-hole pairs being created in the
silicon atoms due to heat
• The silicon is still electrically neutral as the number of
protons is equal to the number of electrons
 The p-n Junction
Suppose we join a piece of p-type silicon to a piece
of n-type silicon

We get what is called a p-n junction

Remember – both pieces are electrically neutral
 The p-n Junction
When initially joined
electrons from the
n-type migrate into the
p-type – less electron
density there
When an electron
fills a hole – both the
electron and hole
disappear as the gap
in the bond is filled
This leaves a region with no free charge carriers – the depletion
layer – this layer acts as an insulator
 The p-n Junction 0.7 V

As the p-type has

gained electrons – it
is left with an overall
negative charge…

As the n-type has

lost electrons – it is
left with an overall
positive charge…

Therefore there is a voltage across the junction – the junction

voltage – for silicon this is approximately 0.7 V
 The Reverse Biased P-N Junction
Take a p-n junction
Apply a voltage
across it with the
p-type negative
n-type positive
Close the switch
The voltage sets
up an electric
field throughout
the junction The junction is said to be reverse – biased
 The Reverse Biased P-N Junction
Negative electrons
in the n-type feel
an attractive force
which pulls them
away from the
depletion layer
Positive holes in
the p-type also
experience an
attractive force
which pulls them
Thus, the depletion layer ( INSULATOR ) is
away from the
widened and no current flows through the
depletion layer
p-n junction
 The Forward Biased P-N Junction
Take a p-n junction
Apply a voltage
across it with the
p-type positive
n-type negative
Close the switch
The voltage sets
up an electric
field throughout The junction is said to be
the junction forward – biased
 The Forward Biased P-N Junction
Negative electrons
in the n-type feel a
repulsive force
which pushes
them into the
depletion layer
Positive holes in
the p-type also
experience a
repulsive force
which pushes them Therefore, the depletion layer is eliminated
into the depletion and a current flows through the p-n junction
layer
 The Forward Biased P-N Junction
At the junction
electrons fill holes
Both disappear
as they are no
longer free for
conduction
They are
replenished by the
external cell and
current flows
This continues as long as the external voltage
is greater than the junction voltage i.e. 0.7 V
 The Forward Biased P-N Junction
If we apply a
higher voltage…
The electrons feel
a greater force
and move faster

The current will

be greater and
will look like
this….
The arrow shows the
The p-n junction is called a DIODE direction in which it
and is represented by the symbol… conducts current
 The Semiconductor Diode
• The semiconductor diode is a p-n
junction
• In reverse bias it does not conduct
• In forward bias it conducts as long
as the external voltage is greater
than the junction voltage
• A diode should always have a
protective resistor in series as it
can be damaged by a large current
Semiconductor
Diodes
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

The semiconductor diode is formed by simply bringing n and p type materials

together (constructed from the same base Ge or Si),
p-n Junctions
The electrons in the n-type material migrate across the junction to the p-type
material (electron flow).

The electron migration results in a negative charge on the p-type side of the junction
and a positive charge on the n-type side of the junction.

The result is the formation of a depletion region around the junction.

This region of uncovered positive and negative ions is called the depletion region
due to the depletion of carriers in this region.
The width of space charge region (depletion region )

2εVJ 2εVJ
wn = wP =
N D2 N A2
q( N D + ) q( N A + )
NA ND

Depletion region exists almost entirely on the slightly doped side.

Width depends on the voltage across the junction.
 Diode Operating Conditions

A diode has three operating conditions:

• No bias
• Forward bias
• Reverse bias
No-Bias Condition (VD = 0 V)
• Any minority carriers (holes) in the n-type material that find themselves within
the depletion region will pass directly into the p-type material.
•The closer the minority carrier is to the junction, the greater the attraction for the
layer of negative ions and the less the opposition of the positive ions in the
depletion region of the n-type material.
Similar discussion can be applied to the minority carriers (electrons) of the
p-type material.

Ie Ih

Imin =Ie +Ih

 No-Bias Condition (VD = 0 V)
• The majority carriers (electrons) of the n-type material must overcome the
attractive forces of the layer of positive ions in the n-type material and the
shield of negative ions in the p-type material to migrate into the area beyond
the depletion region of the p-type material. However, the number of majority
carriers is so large in the n-type material that there will invariably be a small
number of majority carriers with sufficient kinetic energy to pass through the
depletion region into the p-type material.
• the same discussion can be applied to the majority carriers (holes) of the p-
type material.

Ih Ie

Imaj = Ie +Ih
• The relative magnitudes of the flow vectors are such that the net flow in either
direction is zero.

In the absence of an applied bias voltage, the net flow of charge in any one
direction for a semiconductor diode is zero.

Imin

Imaj
 Diode Operating Conditions
No Bias

• No external voltage is applied:

VD = 0 V
• No current is flowing: ID = 0 A
• Only a modest depletion region
exists

N AND
Vo = VT ln 2
ni
Reverse-Bias Condition (VD < 0 V)
External voltage is applied across the p-n junction in the
opposite polarity of the p- and n-type materials.

• The reverse voltage causes the depletion

region to widen.
• The electrons in the n-type material are
attracted toward the positive terminal of the
voltage source.
• The holes in the p-type material are attracted
toward the negative terminal of the voltage
source.
• The number of minority carriers, however, that find themselves entering the
depletion region will not change, resulting in minority-carrier flow vectors of the
same magnitude with no applied voltage.
The current that exists under reverse-bias conditions is called the reverse
saturation current and is represented by Is.

• The reverse saturation current is typically in the nanoampere range for silicon
devices and in the low-microampere range for germanium.
 Diode Operating Conditions
Forward-Bias Condition (VD < 0 V)
External voltage is applied across the p-n junction in the
same polarity as the p- and n-type materials.

• The forward voltage causes the depletion

region to narrow.
• The electrons and holes are pushed toward
the p-n junction.
• The electrons and holes have sufficient
energy to cross the p-n junction.
 Actual Diode Characteristics

Note the regions for no bias,

reverse bias, and forward
bias conditions.

Carefully note the scale for

each of these conditions.
 Diode Equation

 KVD
 I (e Tk − 1) Forward bias
iD =  s
− I s Reversed bias

The forward bias voltage required for a:

• gallium arsenide diode ≅ 1.2 V

• silicon diode ≅ 0.7 V
• germanium diode ≅ 0.3 V
Zener Region

The Zener region is in the diode’s reverse-bias

region.
At some point the reverse bias voltage is so large
the diode breaks down and the reverse current PIV
increases dramatically.

• The maximum reverse voltage that won’t

take a diode into the zener region is called
the peak inverse voltage or peak reverse
voltage.
• The voltage that causes a diode to enter the
zener region of operation is called the zener
voltage (VZ).

The maximum reverse-bias potential that can be applied before entering the
Zener region is called the peak inverse voltage (referred to simply as the PIV
rating) or the peak reverse voltage (denoted by PRV rating).
Zener Region
• As the voltage across the diode increases in the reverse-bias region, the
velocity of the minority carriers responsible for the reverse saturation current Is
will also increase. Eventually, their velocity and associated kinetic energy (WK
1/2 mv2) will be sufficient to release additional carriers through collisions with

otherwise stable atomic structures.

• That is, an ionization process will result whereby valence electrons absorb
sufficient energy to leave the parent atom. These additional carriers can then aid
the ionization process to the point where a high avalanche current is established
and the avalanche breakdown region determined.
Zener Region
• The avalanche region (VZ) can be brought closer to the vertical axis by increasing
the doping levels in the p- and n-type materials. However, as VZ decreases to very
low levels, such as -5 V, another mechanism, called Zener breakdown, will
contribute to the sharp change in the characteristic.

• Zener breakdown occurs because there is a strong electric field in the region of the
junction that can disrupt the bonding forces within the atom and “generate” carriers.
Although the Zener breakdown mechanism is a significant contributor only at lower
levels of VZ, this sharp change in the characteristic at any level is called the Zener
region and diodes employing this unique portion of the characteristic of a p-n
junction are called Zener diodes.
Silicon versus Germanium

Silicon diodes have, in general,

• higher PIV
• higher current rating
• wider temperature ranges
than germanium diodes.

The disadvantage of silicon, however, as compared

to germanium, , is the higher forward-bias voltage
required to reach the conduction region
 Temperature Effects

As temperature increases it adds energy to the diode.

• It reduces the required forward bias voltage for forward-bias conduction.
• It increases the amount of reverse current in the reverse-bias condition.
• It increases maximum reverse bias avalanche voltage.
Germanium diodes are more sensitive to temperature variations than silicon or gallium
arsenide diodes.

The reverse saturation current Is will just about

double in magnitude for every 10°C increase in
temperature.
 Resistance Levels
Semiconductors react differently to DC and AC currents.

There are three types of resistance:

• DC (static) resistance
• AC (dynamic) resistance
• Average AC resistance
 DC (Static) Resistance

For a specific applied DC voltage

VD, the diode has a specific
current ID, and a specific
resistance RD.

VD
RD =
ID
 RESISTANCE LEVELS
DC or Static Resistance
To determine the dc resistance of a diode at a particular operating point.

In general , the lower the

current through a diode the
higher the dc resistance
level.

Example: Determine the dc resistance levels for the diode of following Figure at
(a) ID = 2 mA (b) ID = 20 mA (c) VD = -10 V
 AC or Dynamic Resistance
If a sinusoidal rather than dc input is applied, the varying input will move the
instantaneous operating point up and down a region of the characteristics and thus defines
a specific change in current and voltage

The slope of the diode equation can be found by differentiation .Assuming forward bias,
qVD qVD
ηkT ηkT
iD = I s (e − 1) ≅ I s e
qV
diD qI s ηkTD qiD Q
= e =
dvD ηkT ηkT
The reciprocal of the slope at any operating point is called the dynamic resistance of the diode at that Q point
dvD ηkT ηVT η (26mV )
rd = = = = (at _ room _ temp)
diD I DQ
qiD Q I DQ I DQ
AC (Dynamic) Resistance
In the forward bias region:

26 mV
rd =
ID

• The resistance depends on the amount of current (ID) in the diode.

• The voltage across the diode is fairly constant (26 mV for 25°C).
• rB ranges from a typical 0.1 Ω for high power devices to 2 Ω for low
power, general purpose diodes. In some cases rB can be ignored.

In the reverse bias region:

rd = ∞

The resistance is effectively infinite. The diode acts like an open.

Average AC Resistance

ΔVd
rav = pt. to pt.
ΔI d

AC resistance can be calculated

using the current and voltage values
for two points on the diode
characteristic curve.
Summary Table
Dynamic Resistance (Small-Signal Diode Model)

The concept behind small-signal operation is that a time varying signal with small
amplitude “rides” ( called small signal ) on a DC value that may or may not be large.

vs = VDC + Vac sin ωt

The analysis of the diode circuit is then divided into two parts:
1. DC “bias”
2. AC “signal” of small amplitude.
and the solutions are added together using superposition.
where vd(t) is some time varying waveform, perhaps periodic such as a
sinusoid or triangle signal.
The purpose of VD in this circuit is to set the operation of the diode
about a point on the forward bias i-v characteristic curve of the diode.
This is called the quiescent point, or Q point, and the process of setting
these DC values is called biasing the diode.
The total voltage at any time t is the sum of the DC and AC components

The analysis process is illustrated below:

 For the circuit shown below, determine vD when vs = 10 + 1sin 2π .60.t
The diode specifications is n = 2.

As we discussed, for small AC signals we can separate the DC analysis from the AC (i.e., linearized).
We need to start with the DC bias. Assuming VD = 0.7V for a silicon diode the DC current is

At this DC bias, then the small-signal resistance at the Q point is

We use this rd as the equivalent resistance in the small-signal model

of the diode.
The AC voltage across the diode is found from voltage division as

By superposition , the composite solution fo vD is

vD = VDQ + vd (t ) = 0.7 + 0.00535 cos(ωt ) V

DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
Piecewise-Linear Equivalent Circuit

This is a “battery plus internal diode resistance model.”

iD(mA)
vD = 0.7 + rav iD
Simplified Equivalent Circuit
• Constant-Voltage-Drop (CVD) Model

• This is probably the most commonly used diode model for hand calculations.

Ideal Equivalent Circuit

Diode Capacitance

•In reverse bias, the depletion layer is very large. The diode’s strong positive and
negative polarities create capacitance, CT. The amount of capacitance depends
on the reverse voltage applied.
•In forward bias storage capacitance or diffusion capacitance (CD) exists as the
diode voltage increases.
Reverse Recovery Time (trr)
Reverse recovery time is the time required for a diode to stop conducting
once it is switched from forward bias to reverse bias.
Diode Specification Sheets
Data about a diode is presented uniformly for many different diodes. This
makes cross-matching of diodes for replacement or design easier.

1. Forward Voltage (VF) at a specified current and temperature

2. Maximum forward current (IF) at a specified temperature
3. Reverse saturation current (IR) at a specified voltage and
temperature
4. Reverse voltage rating, PIV or PRV or V(BR), at a specified
temperature
5. Maximum power dissipation at a specified temperature
6. Capacitance levels
7. Reverse recovery time, trr
8. Operating temperature range
 Diode Symbol and Packaging

The anode is abbreviated A

The cathode is abbreviated K
 Zener Diode

A Zener is a diode operated in reverse bias at

the Zener voltage (VZ).

Common Zener voltages are between 1.8 V and

200 V
 Zener diode

This is a p-n junction device, in which zener breakdown mechanism

dominates. Zener diode is always used in reverse Bias.

Doping concentration is heavy on p and n regions of the diode, compared

to normal p-n junction diode.
Due to heavy doping, depletion region width is narrow.

Since depletion region is narrow, electric field intensity E; will be high,

near the junction, of the order of 1006V/m. where Zener Breakdown
mechanism occurs.

Applications
• In Voltage Regulator Circuits.
• In Clipping and Clamping Circuits
• In Wave Shaping Circuits.
Light-Emitting Diode (LED)
•An LED emits photons when it is forward biased.
•These can be in the infrared or visible spectrum.
•The forward bias voltage is usually in the range of 2 V to 3 V.

In all semiconductor p-n junctions some of this energy will be given off as heat
and some in the form of photons.
• In silicon and germanium the greater percentage is given up in the form of heat
and the emitted light is insignificant.
•In other materials, such as gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) or gallium
phosphide (GaP), the number of photons of light energy emitted is sufficient to
create a very visible light source.
VARACTOR DIODE
CT varies with the value of reverse bias voltage.
The larger the reverse voltage, the larger the W.

Varactor (Varicap) diodes are used in high frequency circuits.

2ε (V0 + Vr )
wP =
N A2
q( N A + )
ND

2ε (V0 + Vr )
wn =
N D2
q( N D + )
NA
Diode Arrays

Multiple diodes can be packaged together in an integrated circuit (IC).

A variety of combinations exist.

Common Anode

Common Cathode