ANALOG ELECTRONICS

Subject Code : EE303PC

Regulations : R18 - JNTUH

Class : II Year B.Tech EEE I Semester

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

BHOJ REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE FOR WOMEN
Santosh Nagar Cross Roads, Vinay Nagar, Saidabad, Hyderabad, Telangana 500059
 SYLLABUS:
UNIT - I
• Diode Circuits: P-N junction diode, I-V characteristics of a diode; review of half-wave and full-wave
rectifiers, clamping and clipping circuits. Input output characteristics of BJT in CB, CE, CC
configurations, biasing circuits, Load line analysis, common-emitter, common-base and common
collector amplifiers; Small signal equivalent circuits
UNIT - II
• MOSFET Circuits: MOSFET structure and I-V characteristics. MOSFET as a switch. small signal
equivalent circuits - gain, input and output impedances, small-signal model and common-source,
common-gate and common-drain amplifiers, trans conductance, high frequency equivalent circuit.
UNIT - III
• Multi-Stage and Power Amplifiers: Direct coupled and RC Coupled multi-stage amplifiers;
Differential Amplifiers, Power amplifiers - Class A, Class B, Class C
UNIT - IV
• Feedback Amplifiers: Concepts of feedback – Classification of feedback amplifiers – General
characteristics of Negative feedback amplifiers – Effect of Feedback on Amplifier characteristics –
Voltage series, Voltage shunt, Current series and Current shunt Feedback configurations – Simple
problems.
• Oscillators: Condition for Oscillations, RC type Oscillators-RC phase shift and Wien-bridge
Oscillators, LC type Oscillators –Generalized analysis of LC Oscillators, Hartley and Colpitts
oscillators.
UNIT – V
• Operational Amplifiers: Ideal op-amp, Output offset voltage, input bias current, input offset current,
slew rate, gain bandwidth product, Inverting and non-inverting amplifier, Differentiator,
integrator,Square-wave and triangular-wave generators.
 Structure of compound
• The chemical combination of two or
more elements is called a compound

• The smallest part of the compound that

still retains the properties of the
compound is called a molecule.

• A molecule is the chemical combination

of two or more atoms.

• An atom is the smallest particle of an

element that retains the characteristic of
the element.
 Structure of an Atom
• Atom is the smallest component of
any material.
• It consists of
– Electron (-ve charge)
– Proton (+ve charge)
– Neutron (zero or no charge)
• Nucleus= Protons + Neutrons.
• Electrons revolve around the nucleus
in specific paths called orbits/Shell.
• The number of protons in the nucleus
of the atom is called the element’s
atomic number.
• The total number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus determines the
atomic weight of an atom.
 Structure of an Atom contd..,
• Each orbit is called a shell. These shells
are filled in sequence; K is filled first,
then L, M, N, and so on..
• The maximum number of electrons that
each shell can accommodate are K, L, M,
N, O are 2,8,18,32,18,12 so on..
• The outer shell is called the valence shell
• The electrons of valence shell are called
valence electrons.
• Greater the distance from nucleus , less
attracted the valence electrons are.
 Structure of an Atom contd..,
• Electrons in the valence shell can gain
energy.
• If these electrons gain enough energy from
an external force, they can leave the atom
and become free electrons, moving
randomly from atom to atom.
• Materials that contain a large number of free
electrons are called conductors. (silver,
gold, copper etc..,)
• Insulators are stabilized by absorbing
valence electrons from other atoms to fill
their valence shells, thus eliminating free
electrons
Energy diagram
• Valence Band: It is the energy band
formed due to merging the energy levels
associated with the valence electrons.
• Conduction Band: It is the energy band
formed due to merging the energy levels
associated with the free electrons.
• In normal condition, valence electron
form covalent bond and are not free.
• In normal condition, conduction band is
empty
• When an external energy is imparted ,
electrons jump from VB to CB crossing
the energy gap between them known as
forbidden gap/forbidden band.
 Classification of materials based on
energy bands.
• Conductors : Metals that are good conductors of electricity i.e., they have
large number of free electrons even at room temperature are called
Conductors. Example: copper, aluminium..,
• No Forbidden gap overlapping of bands.
• Insulators: Metals that do not conduct electricity are called Insulators.
These metals have large forbidden gap between the valence band and
conduction band such that electrons cannot jump from VB to CB.
• Forbidden gap is approximately 7eV.
• Example: glass, wood, mica, paper …,
• Semiconductors: Metals having conductivity which is between conductors
and insulators are called semiconductors. Example: Silicon, Germanium…,
• Low temperature no conductivity (behave like insulators)
• As temperature increases, behaves like good conductors.
 Semiconductors
• Forbidden energy gap is about 1eV in semiconductors.
• The electrons absorb the heat provided at room temperature (300 K or 27
C) and starts jumping from valence band to conduction band, therefore
starts conducting.
• But at 0 K or absolute zero ( -273 C) , electrons find themselves locked in
the valence band hence behave as insulators.
• In case of semiconductors, the forbidden gap depends on the temperature

Where T = Absolute Temperature in K

• From above equation,
– Forbidden gap in silicon (Si) at room temperature is 1.12 eV
– Forbidden gap in Germanium (Ge) at room temperature is 0.72 eV
 Why Silicon is most widely used?
• Silicon (Si) has valence electrons in 3rd shell while Germanium (Ge) has
valence electrons in 4th shell.

• Hence the valence electrons of Ge are at larger distance from nucleus and
are loosely bounded to it when compared to valence electrons of Si.

• Thus the valence electrons of Ge can easily escape from an atom, due to
very small additional energy imparted to them.

• So at high temperature, germanium becomes highly unstable when

compared to silicon.

• Hence silicon is widely used as semiconductor material.

 Intrinsic Semiconductor
• Semiconductor in its purest form is called
intrinsic semiconductor.
• The impurities are very very small in the order
of 1 part of 100 millions of semiconductor.
• In semiconductor belong to Group-4 in
periodic table and contains 4 valence
electrons.
• In solids, in order to attain stability these
valence electrons combine with 4 adjacent
valence electrons of other atom to form
covalent bond.
• Hence the outer most shell of all the atoms is
completely filled and the valence electrons are
tightly bounded to parent atoms
• No free electrons are available at absolute 0K, Crystalline structure of silicon with
hence intrinsic semiconductors behaves as covalent bonding
insulator
 Hole Creation
• At 0K, semiconductors behave as
insulators.
• But at room temperature, 300k or 27C
these valence electrons absorb the
energy and breaks the covalent bond.
• Such electrons are not under the
influence of nucleus and are called
free electrons.
• A vacancy is created when an electron
breaks its covalent bond. Such
vacancy is called Hole
 Hole Current
• Under the influence of applied voltage source
(battery), electrons as well as holes move in a
particular direction ,causing the flow of
current.
• As electrons are negatively charged, they get
repelled by –ve terminal of battery and gets
attracted by +ve terminal of battery .
• Thus there is an electric current due to
movement of electrons constituting to
electron current in conduction band.
• Valence band contains both holes and
electrons which form covalent bond.
• Under the influence of applied voltage source
Hole Current
(battery), the electrons involved in covalent
bond break the covalent bond and fills the Total current in intrinsic
hole of neighboring atom, this movement of semiconductor
=
holesin valence band cause hole current.
electron current + hole current
 Current flow in intrinsic
semiconductor
• Under normal conductions these free Direction of electron flow
electrons move randomly and do not
constitute any current.
• When an external battery source is
connected to intrinsic semiconductor,
then
– Electrons flow from negative to positive
terminal and constitutes to current flow.
– But the direction of current is reverse to
electron flow.
– Similarly, hole move from positive terminal
to negative terminal and constitutes to hole
current.

Direction of electron flow

 Doping
• In order to change the properties of intrinsic semiconductors a small
amount of some other material is added to it.
• Doping is the process of adding other materials to the crystal of intrinsic
semiconductors to improve its conductivity.
• The impurity added is called Dopant.
• Doped semiconductor material is called Extrinsic semiconductor.
• Depending on the type of impurity added, there are two types of extrinsic
semiconductors.
– N-type
– P-type
• Pentavalent materials have atoms with five valence electrons and are used
to make N- type material.
• Trivalent materials have atoms with three valence electrons and are used to
make P- type material.
 N-type semiconductor
• The impurity materials having five valence
electrons is called Pentavalent atom.
Example: Arsenic, Bismuth, Phosphorous
and antimony.
• When this is added to intrinsic
semiconductor it is called as donor doping
as each impurity donates 1 free electron to
the intrinsic semiconductor material.
• This creates an extrinsic semiconductor
with large number of free electrons called
n-type semiconductor.
• Note: Since the free electrons have
negative charges the material is called as n-
type material and an impurity donates a
free electron hence called as donor Silicon semiconductor material
impurity. doped with an arsenic atom.
 Conduction in N-type semiconductor
• When the voltage is applied to the n-
type of semiconductor, the free
electrons which are readily available
due to added impurity, move in the
direction of +ve terminal of applied
voltage.
• This constitutes a current .
• Thus the conduction is predominantly
by free electrons.
• The holes are less in number hence the
electron current dominates the hole
current.
• Majority carriers- electrons
• Minority carriers- hole
 P-type semiconductor
• The impurity materials having three
valence electrons is called Trivalent atom.
Example: Gallium, Boron, Indium.
• When this is added to intrinsic
semiconductor it is called as acceptor
doping as it creates more holes and are
ready to accept electrons.
• This creates an extrinsic semiconductor
with large number of holes called p-type
semiconductor.
• Note: Since the holes have positive charges
the material is called as p-type material and
an impurity are ready to accept electrons
hence called as acceptor impurity.
Silicon semiconductor material doped
with an indium atom
 Conduction in P-type semiconductor
• When the voltage is applied to the p-
type of semiconductor, the move in
valence band and are mainly responsible
for conduction.
• This constitutes a current .
• Thus the conduction is predominantly
by holes.
• The electron are less in number hence
the holes current dominates the electron
current.
• Majority carriers- holes
• Minority carriers- electrons
P-N Junction Diode

P type semiconductor
+
N type semiconductor
=
Diode

1. When a p-type material and n-type

material is Chemically combined with a
special fabrication technique to form P-N
symbol junction.
2. Its is an unidirectional Two terminal
device.
3. It can be used as a switch
 Unbiased PN Junction
• In a PN junction, on n-side there are large number of
electrons (High Concentration) while on the p-side
the electrons are minority (Low Concentration).
• In order to attain equilibrium , the electrons move
from n-type (High Concentration) to p-type (low
Concentration). This is called Diffusion.
• Similarly, the holes from p-side diffuse across the
junction in to the n-side.
• As the holes move to n-region they find donor
atoms. The holes recombine with the donor atoms.
• As the donor atoms accepts holes, they become
positively charged immobile ions and gets
accumulated near the junction on n-region.
• Similarly, the acceptor atoms in p-region accepts
electrons, they become negatively charged immobile
ions and gets accumulated near the junction on p-
region
 Depletion Region
• As more number of holes diffuse on n-side, large positive charge gets
accumulated on n-side near the junction. Eventually, the diffusing holes
which are +ve charged, get repelled due to accumulated +ve charge ions on
n-side . Thus , diffusion of holes stops.
• Similarly, due to large –ve charge accumulated on p-side, the diffusing
electrons get repelled and eventually the diffusion of electrons also stops.
• Thus in thermal equilibrium , in the region near the junction, there exists a
wall of –ve immobile charges on p-side and a wall of +ve immobile
charges on n-side. In this region, there are no mobile charge carriers .
• Such a region is depleted of the free mobile charge carriers and hence
called depletion region or depletion layer or also called as space-charge
region.
• In equilibrium condition, the depletion region gets widened upto a point
where no further electrons or holes can cross the junction., thus depletion
region acts like a barrier.
 Barrier Potential
• Due to immobile positive charges on n-side
and negative charges on p-side, there exists
an electric field across the junction.
• This creates potential difference across the
junction which is called barrier potential,
junction potential, built-in potential or cut-
in voltage of p-n junction.

• The barrier potential depends on

1. Type of semiconductor.
2. The donor impurity added. Semiconductor material Symbol Barrier potential
Silicon Si 0.6v
3. The acceptor impurity added. Germanium Ge 0.2v
4. The temperature
 Biasing of diode
• Biasing: Applying external D.C voltage to any electronic device is called
biasing
• Depending upon the polarity of D.C voltage applied externally to it, the
biasing is classified as forward biasing and reverse biasing.
• Forward biasing: +ve terminal of D.C voltage source connected to P-
region and –ve terminal connected to N-region.
• Reverse biasing: +ve terminal of D.C voltage source connected to N-
region and –ve terminal connected to P-region.
 Forward bias operation
• When applied voltage is less than barrier
potential then no current flows (no conduction).
• When applied voltage becomes more than
barrier potential, the –ve terminal of battery
pushes the free electrons against the barrier
potential from n to p region.
• Similarly, the +ve terminal will pushes the holes
from p to n region and crosses the junction
against the barrier potential.
• Thus the applied voltage overcomes the
potential barrier and reduces the width of
depletion region.
• As the forward voltage increased, at a particular
value the depletion region becomes very much
narrow such that large number of majority
charge carriers can cross the junction.
 Contd…
• The large number of majority carriers
constitute a current called forward current.
• Once the conduction electrons enters the p-
region, they become valence electrons.
• Then they move from hole to hole towards the
+ve terminal of the battery.
• The movement of valence electrons is nothing
but movement of holes in opposite direction to
that of electrons, in p-region.
• So the current in the p-region is the movement
of holes which are majority carriers. This is
called Hole current. Direction of electron flow is
• While the current in the n-region is the from –ve to +ve terminal.
movement of electrons which are majority
carriers. This is called electron current. Direction of current is from
+ve to –ve terminal
• Hence the overall forward current flow is due
to majority charge carriers only.
 Effect on Depletion region
• Due to the forward bias voltage, more number of electrons flow into the
depletion region ,which reduces the number of positive ions.
• Similarly, flow of holes reduces the number of negative ions.
• This reduces the width of depletion region in forward bias.

• Under the influence of applied forward bias voltage, the free electrons get
the energy equivalent to barrier potential so that they can overcome the
potential barrier and cross the junction.
 Effect on barrier potential
• While crossing the junction, the electrons give up the amount of energy
equivalent to the barrier potential.
• This loss of energy produces a voltage drop across the p-n junction which
is almost equal to barrier potential.
• Due to internal resistance , there is an additional small voltage drop across
the diode.
• Thus the total voltage drop across the p-n junction diode in a forward
biased condition is Vf and is made up of
– Drop due to barrier potential
– Drop due to Internal resistance
 Reverse bias operation
• When p-n junction is reverse biased, the –ve
terminal of battery attracts the holes in the p-
region, away from the junction.
• the +ve terminal of battery attracts the electrons
in the n-region, away from the junction.
• No charge carrier is able to cross the junction.
• As electrons and hole move away from the
junction, the depletion width widens.
• This creates. more positive ions and hence more
positive charge in the n-region and more
negative ions and hence more negative charge
in the p-region
• Therefore, the reverse biasing increases the
width of the depletion region.
 Effect on Depletion region
• Reverse biasing increases the width of depletion region.
• As the depletion region widens, the barrier potential across the junction
increases.
• In reverse biasing, the barrier potential will have same polarity as the
applied voltage.
• Due to increased barrier potential, the positive side of barrier drags the
electrons from the p-region towards the +ve terminal of battery.
• Similarly, the negative side of barrier drags the holes from the n-region
towards the -ve terminal of battery.
• As the holes in p-region and electrons in n-region are minority charged
carriers, which constitutes the current in reverse bias condition. Thus
reverse conduction takes place.
 Reverse Saturation Current
• The reverse current flows due to minority charged carriers
which are small in number. Hence reverse current is
always very small.
• The generation of minority charge carriers depend on the
temperature and not on the applied reverse bias voltage.
• Thus the reverse current depends on the temperature i.e.,
thermal generation and not on the reverse voltage applied.
• For a constant temperature , the reverse current is almost
constant though the reverse voltage is increased up to a
certain limit.
• Hence it is called reverse saturation current and is
denoted by Io
• Reverse saturation current is very small in order of few
microamperes in case of Ge.
• Reverse saturation current is very small in order of few
nanoamperes in case of Si.
 Breakdown in reverse bias
• Though the reverse saturation current is not dependent on the applied
voltage, the reverse voltage is increased beyond a particular value, large
current can flow damaging the diode.
• This is called reverse breakdown of a diode.
• Such a reverse breakdown of a diode can take place due to the following
effect.
– Zener Effect.
– Avalanche Effect.
V-I Characteristics
 Applications of Diode
1. Clipper circuits
2. Clamper circuits
3. In rectifiers.
4. In Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)
Thank you!