 Pressure vessels –containers / pipelines used

for storing, receiving or carrying the fluids

under pressure.
 Storage vessel – fluid stored remains as it is
 Steam boilers – fluid undergo change of state
 Chemical processing vessel – combine with
other reagents
 PV’s designed with great care – failure of
vessel in service – loss of life and property. 
Material – brittle (C.I)/ductile (plain carbon steel
and alloy steel)
 Vessels, pipelines and the like for carrying,
storing or receiving steam, gases or liquids at
pressure above the atm.pressure.
 National/ international codes for design,
fabrication, inspection and testing of unfired
PV’s
 IS – 2825 – 1069 : Code for unfired PV’s 
Examples : storage vessels, reaction vessels,
autoclaves, heat exchangers, evaporators,
crystallisers, distillation column etc.  Steam
boilers/ nuclear pr, vessel – not considered
 Cylindrical PV’s depending on function
 Horizontal
 Preferredfor thin walled vessels operating under
low pressure.
 Reduces bending stress –wt of vessel+fluid in
vessel  Vertical
 Operating internal pr. <10 Mpa (rolling/welding)
> 10 Mpa (forging)
 Improper material selection

 Corrosion (inaccessible pockets)

 Fatigue failure (Improper prediction) 

Thermal stresses (temp. gradient)  Wind,
seismic activity & piping load (failure to
recoganise)
 Brittle and creep failures
 Improper welding (failure at seams)

 Category - location of joint in vessel (not the type of joint)

 Specifies – special requirements regarding joint type &
degree of inspection
 Category A–
 longitudinal
welded joint within main shell, communicating
chambers or nozzles
 Any welded joint within formed or flat head
 Category B–
 Circumferentialwelded joint within main shell,
communicating chamber or nozzles
 Category C–
 Welded joints connecting flanges and flat heat to main
shell, formed heads or nozzles
 Category D–
 Welded joints connecting communicating chambers or
nozzles with main shell
Weld joint efficiency : strength of the plate
strength of welded joint
 Based on
 reqd. mechanical strength
 Other mechanical
properties  Anti- corrosion
properties
 Fabrication problems
  Commercial availability of
material  Cost of material
 Materials used:
 CI
 Plain carbon steels
 Alloy steels
 Aluminium alloys
 Copper and copper alloys
 Nickel and Nickel alloys
 Gray CI :
 Not corroded by acid/alkali sol.(<30% conc at
any temp.)
 Acid coolers, acid reaction vessels, alkai
reaction vessels etc.
 Alloy CI with silicon as alloying element: 
Good chemical/ corrosion resistant but poor
mechanical property (add small % of Ni, Cu,Cr –
 good wear, strength heat resistant, toughness,
castability & machinability
 Add. Of 3% mo – resistant to Hcl & Cl
containing chemicals
 Low carbon steels (eg. 15C8, 20C8, 30C8)
– commonly used for light duty vessels 
Poor chemical resistant –so not used in
corrosion atmosphere
 Low Alloy steels: C 0.2% ,Mn 1%,Cr 1-3%,
Mo 0.5%, Si 0.3%
 High temp. pressure vessel
 Low Alloy steels: C – 0.2%, Ni 1-4%,Cr
1- 3%,Mo 0.5%,Si 0.3%
 Thick walled heavy duty pressure vessel
in chemical and petroleum industries.
 High alloy Cr-Ni steels and Cr-Ni-Mo steels:
 PV operating at sub-zero temp., very high
temp., handling high corrosive fluids.  Food
processing and dairy plants
 Resists attach by acids
 Used for storage and reaction vessels
handling nitric acid , hydrogen peroxide,
organic solvents, sea water and foodstuffs
 Temp range -150°C TO 150°C
 Food processing plant
 Manufacturing and recovery of organic
solvents in heat exchangers and
evaporators
 Handling corrosive fluid for handling
corrosive fluids at elevated or low temp. 
Where contamination of fluid to be
prevented
 Very expensive

 Primarily used as cladding materials in steel

PV
 Design starts with selection of design
parameters as:
 Design Pressure (pi)
 Allowable (design) stress (σ all)
 Corrosion Allowance (c)

 Design Pressure (pi)

 Max. Pressure : Max Pr. To which PV is
subjected  Design Pressure : Pr. for which PV
is designed  Hydrostatic test Pr.: Pr. at which
PV is tested  Design Pr. pi = 1.05 (Max. working
 Pr.)  Hydrostatic test Pr. = 1.3 (Design Pressure)
 Allowable (design) stress (σ all):

 As per IS and ASME code σ all is based on Sut and fos (3

and 4)  As per DIN code ids based on Syt and fos 1.5
 σ all = Sut/3
 σ all = Syt/1.5

 Corrosion Allowance (c):

 Wallssubjected to thinning due to corrosion (reduces life)

 Corrosion is due to:
 Chemical attach by reagents (inner surface)
 Rusting due to atm. Air and moisture
 High temp. oxidation
 Erosion (flow of reagents over wall surface at high velocity)

 Corrosion allowance : “additional thickness of

PV wall over and above the required to
withstand the internal pressure.”
 Guidelines:
 For CI,plain carbon steel and alloy
steel component – c=1.5 mm
 Chemical industries(sever condition)- c=3 mm
 High alloy steel & non-ferrous components –
no corrosion allowance needed
 When t >30 mm no corrosion allowance
is needed.
 Pressure vessel
shell  End closures
 Nozzles and
openings  Flanged
joints
 Vessel support
  Cylindrical Pressure vessel shell : As in
thin vessel, cylindrical vessel subjected to σT
and σR
σT = pid/2t where mean dia. d=di+t
Considering joint efficiency
η σT = pi(di+t)/2t ts= {pidi/(2σallηl-pi)} +c

 Spherical Pressure Vessel shell :

ts = {pidi/(4σallηT-pi)} +c
 In
addition to pi other loads are : 
Weight of the vessel with its content
 Wind load
  Load due to offset
 Piping

Once ts is estimated , determine resultant

stress in cylindrical vessel due to combined
loading
 Stresses due to combined
loading :  σT
 σL
🞆 σL due to internal pressure
🞆 σL due to weight of vessel and its content in vertical

PV
🞆 Bending stress due to total weight of vessel and
its contents (horizontal PV) OR due to wind
load/seismic load(vertical PV)
  Torsional shear stress due to offset piping
(τ)  Resultant stress (σR)
 Stress in circumferential direction (σT)
:  σT = + pi(di+t)/2t (tensile)

 Stressin longitudinal direction (σL) :

 due to internal pressure (σL) :
 σL1 = + pidi/4t (tensile)

 due to weight of vessel and its content in vertical

PV:
 σL2 = ± W/Π(di+t)t (tensile or compressive) W=
wt. of vessel and its contents in N
 Stress in
longitudinal direction due to weight in vertical PV
 Bending stress due to total weight of vessel and its
contents (horizontal PV) OR due to wind
load/seismic load(vertical PV)
 σL3 = ± MB/Z
  whereMB = max. bending moment due to loads
normal to long. Axis of the vessel, N-mm
Z= section modulus about an axis
perpendicular to long. Axis of the vessel, mm 3
Z = IXX/ymax = Πr3t/(d0/2) = Π(d/2)3t/(d0/2)= Πd3t/4d0
 Z ≈Πd2t/4
Z = Π(di+t)2t/4
± 4MB/ Π(di+t)2t (TENSILE OR
 σL3 =
COMPRESSIVE) Total stress in longitudinal
direction : σL1 + σL2 + σL3 (TENSILE OR COMPRESSIVE)
 Bending moment acting on horizontal PV
shell: (due to total weight of vessel and its
content)  M = WT d2+2L2-4h2 _ 8A
16 L+ 4H/3
WT = total weight of vessel and its content, N
d = mean dia of cylindrical vessel shell, mm
L = Length of cylindrical vessel shell, mm, H = Depth of head,

mm
 Bending load on horizontal PV shell due to total weight of
vessel & its content
 Bending moment acting on vertical pressure vessel shell:
 MW= FW1 (h1-x) + FW2 h1- x+ h2
 22

FW1 = force due to wind load acting on the lower part of vessel shell, = p1(h1– x)d0
FW2 = force due to wind load acting on the upper part of vessel shell, = p2h2d0 p1 =
wind pressure for lower part of vessel shell up to 20m height = 4.623х 10-8v2w p2=
wind pressure for upper part of vessel shell above 20m height = 4.623х 10-8v2w
Vw = wind soeed ,Km/hr
 Bending loads on vertical PV shell
 Torsional shear stress due to offset piping (τ):
τ = T/ (J/rmax)
🞆 T = torque about the longitudinal axis of the vessel due
to offset piping's, N-mm
 🞆 J= polar moment of inertia of the vessel cross-section
about the longitudinal axis of the vessel, mm4
 J/rmax = 2Πr3t/(d0/2) = 2Π(d/2)3t/(d0/2) = =
Πd3t/(2d0) ≈ Πd2t/2
J/rmax= Π(di+t)2t/2
τ = 2T/Π(di+t)2t
 Resultant stress (σR) :
 It is clear that PV is subjected to σT,σL, τ
 Hence acc. To distortion energy theory
resultant stress in cylindrical PV,
2
 σR = √ (σT2– +3τ )
σT.σL +σL2
 For safety of PV FOLLOWING CONDITION
MUST BE SATISFIED :
 σR ≤ σ all
 σT ≤ σ all
 σL(tensile) ≤ σ all
 σL (compressive) ≤ σ allc
 Cylindrical PV are closed at ends by either:  (1)
Flat heads (or)
 (2) Formed heads

 Heads are either bolted or welded with main vessel

shell
 (1) Flat heads:
 simplest,only for small dia vessels
 Also as manhole covers (low pr. Vessels) & as cover for
small openings
 Thickness of flat head
th = 0.7 di √(pi/σall) + c
  Formed heads :
 Commonly used in PV, fabricated from single circular
plate by forming

 Types :
 Plain formed head
 Torispherical dished head
 Semi-elliptical dished head
 Hemispherical head
 Conical head
 Plain Formed Head:
 for horizontal cylindrical storage vessel at atm. Pr.
  Also used for bottom ends of vertical cylindrical
vessel that rest on concrete wall (dia not>7m) th =
0.4 di √(pi/σall) + c
ric = inside corner radius or knuckle radius, mm
≥ 0.1 di
Sf = straight flange length, mm
= 3 th or 20mm(whichever is larger)
requires min. amount of forming & hence economical
 Torispherical Dished Head:
 Usedfor vertical/horizontal pressure vessels (pr.
Range 0.1 N/mm2to 1.5 N/mm2)
 th = KfpiRc + c
2σallη – 0.2pi
 Where Kf= ¼ 3 +√ (Rc/ ric) stress intensification
factor
For his head 0.5 di < Rc < di & ric= 0.06 Rc

Kf=1.77 (put in th)

 th = 0.885piRc + c
σallη – 0.1pi
 Torispherical Dished Head
b =Rc–AC
2 2
 = Rc-√(BC) -(AB)
  =Rc- √(Rc– ric)2– (di/2- ric)2
 Sf= 3 th or 20 mm (whichever is larger)
 Volume of fluid in torispherical dished head excluding
straight flange portion Vh= 0.08467di3, mm3  Drawback:
local stresses at two discontinuitiesdi

 Semi-elliptical
head:
 For pr. >1.5 N/mm2
 Major axis/minor axis = 2
 th =Kfpidi + c
 2σallη – 0.2pi

 Kf= 1/6(2+K21 ) Stress intensification factor

 K1= 2 therefore th = pidi + c

 2σallη – 0.2pi
 For this head ric= 0.1di and
 Sf= 3 th or 20 mm (whichever is larger)
 Stronger than plain formed and torispherical dished

head  But more forming so cost is more

 Volume of fluid in semi-elliptical dished head excluding
straight flange portion Vh= 0.131di3, mm3
 Hemispherical Head:
 Strongest of all formed heads
 Free from discontinuities hence used in high
PV’s  More forming reqd. so costly
 th = pidi + c
4σallη – 0.4pi

 For this head Sf= 3 th or 20 mm (whichever is larger) 

Volume of fluid in hemisperical head excluding straight
flange portion Vh= 0.262di3, mm3
 Conical Head :
 Widely used as bottom heads to facilitate removal/draining of
the material
 Semi-cone angle = 30°
 th = pidi + c
(2σallη – pi) cosα
  For this head Sf= 3 th or 20 mm (whichever is larger) Fig:

Conical Head

 Bywelded/bolted joints
 Different varieties of welded connections
 used are
 Openings provided for functional requirements
 Inletand outlet connections
 Drain pipe connections
  Pressure gauge connections
 Safety device connection
 Manholes etc.
 Nozzles are formed/welded around these
openings  Opening/holes – creates stress
concentration in the vicinity of openings
 Stress concentration reduced by providing
 reinforcement in the vicinity of opening
 Achieved by any one or combination of following:
 Providing additional thickness to vessel wall itself
near the nozzle
 Use of separate reinforcing pad attached to
the vessel wall covering an area surrounding
the opening
 Providing additional thickness to nozzle
 Most widely used method :
 AREA FOR AREA METHOD OF COMPENSATION
 Area of material removed is compensated by
providing additional area of material

 Inner dia of nozzle in corroded

cond.=dnc=dn+2c
 Min. reqd thickeness of nozzle wall
 trn = pidn
(2σallη-pi)
 Min. reqd. thickness of vessel shell
trn = pidi
(2σallηl-pi)
H1= √dnc(tn-c)
(or) whichever
Actual ht. of noz. Is smaller
outside vessel
H2= √dnc(tn-2c)
(or) whichever
Actual ht. of noz. Is smaller
inside vessel
Reinforcement boundary limit ABCD
such that AB = 2d nc
 1.Area of opening on corroded for
which compensation is reqd. (Ar): Ar
= dnc.trs
 2.Area available for compensation
(Aa) (i) Area of excess thickness in
the portion of vessel shell is :
A1 = (2dnc -dnc).(ts - trs- c)
(or) A 1 = dnc(ts- trs- c)
(ii)Area of excess thickness in the
portion of nozzle wall outside the
vessel shell is :
A2= 2H1(tn - trn- c)
(iii)Area of thickness of the nozzle wall
inside the vessel shell is :
A3= 2H2(tn - 2c)
(iv)Total area available for
compensation Aa= A 1+ A 2 +A3
 3.Required area of reinforcing pad
(A):
(i) If Aa ≥ A r compensation is
adequate & no reinforcing pad is
reqd.
 (ii) If Aa ≤ A r compensation is
inadequate & reinforcing pad is
reqd.
Area of reinforcing pad (A)
A = A r- A a (or)
A = A r– (A1+ A 2 +A3)
 4. Dimensions of reinforcing

pad: A = (d po – dpi)tp
dpo = Outer dia of reinforcing pad
dpo = Outer dia of reinforcing pad
tp = thickness of reinforcing pad
 Reinforcing
material should be placed within ABCD
 Methods of reinforcement in opening:

 Balanced reinforcement (prevents creation of

local bending moments – preferred)
 Unbalanced reinforcement
 Design of flanged joint in unfired PV consists
of:  Design of gasket
 Design of bolts
 Design of flange
Gi = inner dia of gasket
Go = outer dia of gasket
W = widthof gasket (Go-Gi)/2
G = Mean dia. Of gasket = Gi+
 w
bo = basic gasket seating width
b = effective gasket seating width
= bo when bo ≤ 6.3 mm
= 2.5√bo when bo > 6.3mm
σg= gasket seating stress
m = gasket factor
pi = design pressure
σgr = residual gasket stress under the operating condition = mpi
(i) Hydrostatic pr.force (force due to internal pressure) extends up to
outer dia of gasket
(ii) Elastic deformation of bolt, gasket and flange neglected
 Gasket seating force (under
preload)

Fgi = Π/4 (Go2-Gi2)σg (1)

 Hydrostatic pressure force
(force due to internal pressure)
Fp = Π/4 Go2pi (2)
 Residual gasket force
(Under operating condition)
Fgr = Π/4 (Go2-Gi2)σgr
Fgr = Π/4 (Go2-Gi2) mpi (3)
m (gasket factor) = ratio of σgr to pi
 Gasket seating force - Hydrostatic pressure force = Residual gasket

force Fgi - Fp = Fgr

 Fgi -Fp = Fgr (Substitute equ (1), (2), (3))
Go = √ σg - mpi
Gi σg – (m+1) pi (gasket dimensions can be
obtained)

If relevant information about gasket not available

then basic gasket seating width ‘bo’ is taken as
bo = w/2
 Based on 2 different loading conditions:
 (i) preload on bolts

 (ii)
load on bolt under
operating conditions (i)
Preload on bolts:
(to induce σgin gasket)
Wb1 = effective area of gasket x
σg
Wb1 = ΠGbσg
(ii) Load on bolts under
oper.conds.
Wb2=load on bolt + load on bolt
due to int. pr. To keep
gasket
leak tight during
operation
 = (Π/4) G2pi+ ΠG(2b).σgr
Wb2= (Π/4) G2pi+ 2ΠbG. mpi
 (iii)
Cross sectional area of each bolt and number of bolts
: C.S area of each bolt
Ac = Wb1
σb1 . N Which ever
is large
Ac = Wb2
σb2 . N

σb1 = allowable tensile stress

(for bolt at atm. temp.)
σb1 = allowable tensile stress
(for bolt at operating.
temp.)
N = no.of bolts
 N should be in multiple of 4 and is given by
N ≈ G/25 (in mm)
 (iv) Diameter of bolt pitch circle and flange :
Dia of bolt pitch circle
D = Go + 2db +12 mm
Outside dia of flange
Do = D +2db
db = nominal diameter of bolt in
mm
3. Design of Flange :
Thickness of flange
tf = √K.pi + c
σall
where K = 0.3 + (1.5 Wb.hg)
FpG
Wb = max. load on bolt( max of Wb1 and Wb2
hg = radial distance b/w gasket load reaction and bolt pitch
circle = (D- G)/2 Fp= hydro st.pr.force,N = (Π/4)G2. pi
 Vertical PV’s supported by Bracket or Skirt

 Horizontal PV’s supported by Saddles 

Supports for vertical PV’s :

 Bracket or Lug support
 Skirt support
 Bracket or Lug support :
4 brackets or lugs
 Effect due to eccentricity of support
 Ideal for thick walled vessels
 Thin walled vessel (pads)
 Suitable for smaller height
 Loads on bracket – dead wt of
vessel with contents
+wind load
 Windward side (max.tensile stress) 
Leeward size (max. comp.stress)-
(determining factor for design of supports)
 Max. Total compressive load in most remote support :

F = 4Fw(H-L) + WT
n Dbc n
Fw = total wind load on exposed surface, N
H = height of vessel above foundation, mm L = Vessel
clearnce fro foundation to vessel bottom, mm Dbc =
diameter of anchor bolt circle , mm
n = no. of supports
WT = total wt. of vessel and its content . N
 Tall vertical PV’s supported by skirts  Has high
section modulus (better resistance to bending)  Bearing plate
(avoid overturning)
 Subjected to comp. stress (dead wt of vessel+ its content) 
 Bending stress (wind and seismic loads)

 Direct compressive stress (σc)

 Bending stress (σb)
 (i) Direct compressive stress (σc)
:  σc = WT = WT
 π dktk π(dik+tk) tk
dik = inner dia of skirt
dk = mean dia of skirt
tk = thickness of skirt
 (ii) Bending stress (σb) :
 σb =
M/Zk
 where M = max. bending

moment on skirt due to

wind and seismic loads,
N-mm
Zk = section modulus of
skirt cross section about an
axis
perpendicular to long. axis of
the skirt, mm3
Z = IXX/ymax =
Πrk3tk/(d0/2) =
 Π(dk/2)3tk/(d0/2)= Πdk3tk/4d0k
 Z ≈Πd2t/4
Z = Π(dik+tk)2tk/4

 (a)Max. bending moment action on skirt due to

wind load (Mw):
MW= FW1 .h1 + FW2 h1+ h2
22

FW1= force due to wind load acting on lower part of vessel,

N = pih1do
FW2 = force due to wind load acting on upper part of vessel,
N = poh2do
p1 = wind pressure for lower part of vessel upto 20m
height = 4.623 x 10-8Vw2, N/mm2
p2 = wind pressure for upper part of vessel above 20m
 -8 2 2
height = 4.623 x 10 Vw , N/mm
 (b) Max. bending moment acting on skirt due to seismic
load (Ms):
Ms = Fs x (2/3)H (Fsis resultant seismic load acting at
distance of (2/3)H from base)

Ms = CWT x (2/3)H
C = seismic coefficient
WT = total wt. of vessel and contents, N
H = total height of the vessel, mm
 (c) Max. bending moment acting on skirt (M): M =
maximum of MW and Ms
 (iii) Resultant stress induced in skirt: Max. tensile
stress induced in skirt
σtk = - σc + σb
Max. tensile stress induced in skirt
σtk = - σc + σb
 Types of saddle support
 Plate type (small vessels)

 Ring type (large thin walled vessels)