VELS VIDYASHRAM

PALLAVARAM

PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

PNP TRANSISTERS

2022-23

NAME: N HARISH RAGHAVAN

CLASS: XII D
ROLL NUMBER:
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that of class XII D

has completed the physics project titled "PNP
TRANSISTORS” SECONDARY EDUCATION (CBSE).
This project was carried out in the physics
laboratory of Vels Vidyashram Sr. Sec. School
during the academic year 2022-2023.

SIGN:-

INTERNAL EXAMINER:-

EXTERNAL EXAMINER:-
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank my physics teacher Mr.

Murugavelh for his constant guidance, motivation,
moral encouragement and sympathetic attitude
towards the success of this project. I also want to
thank the principal and the institution for
providing the necessary materials.

I would like to thank my friend who

supported me all throughout the project. It
benefited me to increase my knowledge and fun
learning
 Introduction
 The PNP transistor is a type of bipolar transistor used for
amplification and switching purpose and for the designing of
the complementary output stage in combination with NPN
transistor.
 It comes with three terminals called emitter, base, and
collector where small current at the base terminal is used to
control large current at other terminals.
 It is a current controlled device also known as sinking device
where it sinks current into its base terminal and current flows
out of the collector.
 Unlike NPN transistor, current flows from the emitter to
collector in this PNP transistor and holes act as a majority
charge carriers.
 This transistor comes with same characteristics as NPN
transistor but there are some exceptions. In case of PNP
transistor, all voltage polarities and current directions will be
reversed as compared to NPN transistor. The PNP transistor
sinks current into its base while NPN transistor sources current
through its base terminal.
 Both NPN and PNP transistors are current controlled devices
where conduction is carried out by both charge carriers i.e.
electrons and holes, but major charge carriers are electrons in
case of NPN transistors. While in case of PNP transistor major
charge carriers are holes.
 The PNP transistor is like a combination of diodes combined
back to back from cathode sides.
 Transistor
A junction diode which is used for amplification is
known as transistor.
There are three section of transistor.
i) Emitter (F)
ii) Base (B)
iii) Collector (C)
The base (B) of a transistor is made thin and it is doped
lightly. The
Emitter (E) supplies the majority carriers for current
flow and collector (C)
Collect them
When a transistor is used in a circuit the base-emitter
junction is always
Forward biased and base-collector junction is reverse
biased.
Types of Transistor
Transistors are of two types
1) p-n-p transistor
id) n-p-n transistor
i) p-n-p transistor is formed when -section is switched between
two p-
Sections.
ii) n-p-n transistor is formed when p-section is switched between
two n-
sections.
Action of PNP transistor: The action of both the types of
transistors i.e.NPN and PNP is similar except that the majority and
minority carriers in the two cases are of opposite nature

The functional difference

between a PNP transistor and an NPN transistor is the proper
biasing (polarity) of the junctions When operating. For any given
state of operation, the current. Directions and voltage polarities
for each kind of transistor are exactly opposite each other. Bipolar
transistors work as current-controlled. Current regulators. In
other words, transistors restrict the amount of current passed
according to a smaller, controlling current. The main current that
is controlled goes from collector to emitter, or from emitter to
collector, depending on the type of transistor it is (PNP or NPN,
respectively). The small current that controls the main current
goes from base to emitter, or from emitter to base, once again
depending on the kind of transistor it is (PNP or NPN,
respectively). According to the standards of semiconductor
symbology, the arrow always points against the direction of
electron flow. (Figure below)
 Experiment
AIM: To study and perform Transistor as a switch AND AMPLIFIER.
APPARATUS: Transistor BC547, resistors, DC Power supply,
Function, Generator, Connecting Wire Pieces, Breadboard, Preset:
10 K 92, LED.
THEORY: In common emitter circuit of a transistor, emitter
base make input section and is forward biased and emitter
collector junction make output section and is reverse biased.
The variation in the output voltage w.r.t. the variation in
Input voltage for a transistor are shown in figure.

The amount of amplification is decided by the B (beta) of the

transistor.
ß=hfe=Ic/IB
Where,
•IC is the collector current.
• I is the base current.
B is an intrinsic property of the transistor. Different
Transistors have different betas.
 Circuit diagram
For this, experiment we will use the transistors in the
common-emitter configuration. The input signal is applied
between the base and emitter, and the output is taken from
the collector and emitter.

Circuit explanation:
1. In this circuit two same-coloured LEDs are used so that the
effect of amplification can be clearly seen.
2. The emitter of the transistor is grounded.
3. A preset (10 k92) is used in the circuit. It is used as a
voltage divider to apply different voltages at the base. To
use preset as a voltage divider, either of the side
terminals is given Vcc and the other ground.
4. The middle terminal of the preset is connected in series
with the positive terminal of LED1. The negative terminal
of LED is connected in series with a resistor R1 (330 S2).
The other end of the resistor is connected to the base of
the transistor.
5. One end of resistor, Rz (330 S2) is connected to the collector.
The other end of the corresponding resistor is connected to the
negative terminal of LED2.
6. The positive terminal of LED2 is connected to Vcc.

Procedure:
1. Make the circuit diagram (on breadboard, if possible).
2. Make all connections neat, clean and tight.
3. Now, set a particular input voltage (Vi) using the preset,
and measure it. Also, measure the voltages at the base
(VB) and collector (Vc) and compare them.
4. Measure the base current (I) and the collector current
(Ic) and verify the amplification factor.
5. Now, rotate the preset to a position, where both the LEDs
glow brightly. At this position, measure the input voltage
(Vi) at the middle terminal of the preset. Also, measure
the voltages at the base (VB) and collector (Vc) and compare
them.
6. Again, measure the base current (VB) and the collector
(Vc) current and verify the amplification factor.
Observation:
1. For the first reading :-
• VI=
• VR=
• Vc=
•I=
•Ic=
Calculation:
Conclusion:
• For the first readings, V is less than the collector
voltage Vc. Since the base voltage is less than the
collector voltage, we can say that the base - collector
junction is reverse biased. This is a necessary condition
for the transistor to be in the active region. The value
of B (hFE) for this transistor should be between
100 - 400. The calculated value, 358, lies in this range.
This means that the transistor is in the active region.
• So, in the active region, the transistor acts as an
amplifier as long as the base - emitter junction is forward biased
and the base - collector junction is
reverse biased.
• Now, for the second reading, on comparing the base
and the collector voltages, we can see that the base
voltage V is more than the collector voltage Vc. Since
the base voltage is more than the collector voltage, we
can say that the base - collector junction is forward
biased. This is a necessary condition for the transistor
to be in the saturation region.
Also, the collector voltage is close to zero volt
(ground).
• The value of B (hFE), 1.3, is less than the ideal gain
(100) of a transistor. This means, the transistor does
not act as an amplifier in this case, it acts like a
switch. In the saturation region, the collector - emitter
voltage VcE is reduced to almost 0 V. We can see that
the value of the collector voltage with respect to the
emitter (ground) is 0.03 V. The collector and emitter
act as two terminals of the switch, which get nearly
shorted.
RESULT
• In the active region, the transistor acts as an amplifier
as long as the base - emitter junction is forward biased
and the base - collector junction is reverse biased.
• A transistor gets saturated when its base - emitter
junction and base - collector junction are forward
biased. In saturation, the potential difference
between the emitter and the collector is
approximately equal to zero volt.
This voltage across the collector - emitter junction is called the
collector - emitter saturation voltaqe. The value of the saturation
region for the PNP transistor in my project is around 0.25 - 0.6 V.
precaution:
1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. The input voltage should be increases gradually.
3. Don't connect the terminals of the battery to each
other.
Sources of error
• The transistor may be faulty.

bibliography
• Guidance from Teacher
• NCERT Class 12 Physics Book
• Comprehensive Physics Practical Book
www.cooljunk.in/physics-project-kit
•www.google.com