Acknowledgement

I would like to express my special thanks for gratitude to my physics

teacher ‘Dr. Neerja Haridas ‘ for their able guidance and support in
Completing my project.
I would like to also explain my gratitude to the principal mam
‘Dr.Priya wanjari’ for providing me with all facilities that required.

Contents
1. Objectives
2. Introduction
3. Theory
4. Experimental work
5. Conclusion
6. Bibliography
 Objectives
To understand the Transistor’s characteristics. Construct
the Transistor circuit. ( Common base and common
emitter connection). Name of the Experiment:
Transistors Characteristics.
2. Practical and mathematical symbol
3. Characteristics of Transistor (i) These are two p-n
junctions. Therefore, a transistor may be regarded as a
combination of two diodes connected back to back. (ii)
There are three terminals, one taken from each type of
semiconductor. (iii) The middle section is a very thin
layer. This is the most important factor in the function of
a transistor.
4. Emitter, Base, Collector (i) Emitter: The section on
one side that supplies charge carriers (electrons or
holes) is called the emitter. The emitter is always
forward biased w.r.t. base so that it can supply a large
number of majority carriers. (ii) Collector: The section on
the other side that collects the charges is called the
collector. The collector is always reverse biased. (iii)
Base: The middle section which forms two p-n junctions
between the emitter and collector is called the base. The
base-emitter junction is forward biased, allowing low
resistance for the emitter circuit. The base-collector
junction is reverse biased and provides high resistance
in the collector circuit.
 Introduction
The semiconductor has made a great revolution in
electronics. It is the back bone of electronics
components and device. The main features of
semiconducting devices are miniaturization, Light
weight, low power consumption, low cost , no aging
effect, no heating filaments required, no switching on
time, high efficiency etc. as compared to vacuum tube
devices. In this topic we will learn some Special diodes:
Light emitting diode, and solar cell. Besides this,
Transistors is the next three terminal solid state
devices the has Brought profound changes virtually in
every area of our interest. It is fabricated with two p-n
junction and hence known as bipolar Junction (BJT). It
has been used in all application of electronics in a
place of Vacuum tube triode.

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

 Theory

A transistor is a semiconductor device which is

invented in 1947 by American physicist john
Bondeen, Walter Breattain and William Schockley.
The invention of transistor has opened a new era in
Solid state electronics devices of light weight, smaller
in size less expensive, less power consumption and
many more. Transistor is a bipolar device as it
consists of both majority and minority carriers. It is
also known as bipolar Junction transistor (BJT) as it
consists of two p-n junctions. It is a current operating
device. It has three terminals emitter (E); Base (B);
and collector (C).

There are two types of transistors :-

1. NPN transistor :- When a p type material is sand-

witched between two N-type region is called as NPN
transistor
2. PNP transistor:- When N-type material is sand-witched
between two P-type region is called as PNP transistor.

Three terminals are provided to three regions for external

connections, namely emitter(E), base (B), and collector(C).

Emitter: Emitter terminal is the heavily doped region as compared

two base and collector. This is because the work of the emitter is
to supply charge carrier to the collector via the base. The size of
the emitter is more than base but less than the collector.
Base: The size of the base region is extremely small, it is less than
emitter as well as the collector. The size of the base is always kept
small so that charge carriers coming from the emitter and entering
base will not recombine in the base region and will be directed
towards the collector region. The doping intensity of base is also
less than emitter and collector for the same reason mentioned
above.
Collector: The collector terminal is moderately doped, and the size
of the collector region is slightly more than emitter region because
all the charge carriers coming from the emitter recombine at base
and heat is released in this process. Thus, it is necessary for the
collector terminal to be large enough so that it can dissipate the
heat and the device may not burn out
The base-emitter junction should be forward biased, and the
collector-base junction should be reversed biased. Therefore, the N-
terminal of emitter-base junction is connected to the negative
terminal of VBE ,and the P-terminal of the battery is connected to
the positive terminal of the VBE.

To reverse bias the collector-base junction, the N-terminal is

connected to the positive terminal of the VCB and the P-terminal is
connected to the negative terminal of the battery VCE. This will
make the wide depletion layer at the collector-base junction and
narrow depletion layer at emitter-base junction. When forward
biased is applied to the emitter-base junction, the electrons in N-
region will repel from the negative terminal of the battery and will
move towards the base region. The base region is very small as
compared to emitter and collector region. Besides, the doping
intensity of base is lowest. Thus, it consists of fewer holes .Due to
few holes in the base region, only a few electrons will recombine
with holes. The other electrons which have not recombined yet will
move towards collector region. This will constitute current in the
circuit. The size of the collector is large so that it can collect more
charge carriers and can dissipate heat. The current in NPN transistor
is due to electrons because electrons are the majority charge carriers
in NPN transistor. The emitter current in NPN transistor is equal to
the sum of base and collector current. Mathematically it can be
written as:-
IE=IB+IC
 Experimental Work
Transistor use as a switch :
In most of the applications, transistors are used as a switch in
circuits. If the electronic circuit uses the transistor as a switch,
then the biasing of the transistor either use PNP transistor or an
NPN transistor that we must have to see. A transistor basically
operated in three different modes,

an active region,

saturation region,

and cut-off region.

Transistor-as-a-Switch:-
the transistor works as an amplifier in an active region only. The
other two operating regions of transistor Saturation Region and
the Cut-off Region were used to operate a transistor switch.
Transistor is operated as a switch in only this two operating
regions.
When we apply the voltage at the base terminal of a transistor then
switching operation is performed. When a voltage (Vin > 0.7 V) is
applied between the base and emitter terminals of transistor then
collector to emitter voltage ( Vce ) is approximately equal to 0. So
that, the transistor acts as a short circuit and we can say transistor
is in OFF condition. The collector current flows through the
transistor.

Similarly, when no voltage or zero voltage (Vin = 0v ) is applied at

the base and emitter terminal then transistor operates in the cut-
off region and acts as an open circuit. In that case, switching
connection load (here LED lamp) is connected to the output side
with a reference point. Thus, when the transistor is switched ON,
current will flows through the load or LED to the ground.

Transistor circuits as an amplifier:-

A transistor raises the strength of the weak signal thus it can use
as an amplifier. Here figure shows the basic circuits of the
transistor amplifier. Here weak signal we have to apply at the
emitter-base junction of the transistor. We get output at the
collector-base junction as a figure. For proper faithful
amplification of the signal, we have to make the proper circuit.

DC voltage Vee is also applied with input signal between emitter-

base junction. This external d.c voltage is called bias voltage. Input
circuit has small resistance so that causes the change in emitter
current because of transistor action collector is also almost same
as emitter current. This collector current (Ic) passes through the
high resistive load at the collector circuits.
hj

****
 Objectives

 Explain the operation and characteristics of junction field effect

transistors (JFET).
 Understand JFET parameters
 Discuss and analyze how JFETs are biased
 Explain the operation and characteristics of metal oxide
semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFET)
 Discuss and analyze how MOSFET are biased
Troubleshoot FET circuits.
 Introduction
The field effect transistor was first patented by Julius lilienfeld in
1926 and by Oscar Hell in 1934. But practically it was fabricated and
Its performance was explained by the team of William Schekley at bell
Laboratories in 1947. Commercially it’s manufacture started in 1960.

The FET is the second most important solid state

electronics device after bipolar junction transistor (BJT). The acronym
‘FET’ stands for ‘field effect transistor’. It is a three terminal solid state
Device like BJT. It is unipolar device as the current is carried by only
Majority carriers. The current through the device is controlled by an
‘electric field’ similar to the vacuum tube and hence it is rightly called
Field effect transistor.

The FET family tree is shown below.