Electronics Devices

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 Why Semiconductor ??

Semi-Conductor-Conductivity( T,impurity, optical

excitation, physical manipulations…)
SC carriers( 106 to 10 21 /cc), Current ( Drift,
Diffusion , Thermo-electric), R = f (carriers & their
movement) , Mobility
Elemental- Si, Ge
Compound- GaN,GaP, GaAs ( LED)
InSb,CdSe,PbTe….( detectors)
GaAsP, InGaAsP, SiC etc……
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 Semiconductor Devices
•speed)/Hybrid
Small Signal, large signal( Power)/normal,High
( MEMS, Opto-electronics …)
speed (

• Discrete / Monolithic / Integrated

•Silicon chip has been the driving force behind the
Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

•Most of the control functions are achieved by

Diode, BJT & MOS transistors ( Discrete/ Integrated)

•This microelectronics revolution has been

driven by three guiding rules.
January 13, 2020 3
 MOSFET Operation
G Flow of electrons between source and drain is
controlled by applied gate bias
S D

Electron Energy Barrier V =0, V =0, V =0, V =0,

V =0, V =0, V =0, V =0 VS =0, VB >0 VS >0, VB >0
S B G D G D G D

Gate Controlled Switch

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 January 13, 2020

Rule 1 : Moore’s Law (Gordon Moore)

Reducing transistor sizes would translate into doubling of

the number of transistor per chip every 18 months (or so).
Rule 2 : Scaling Theory (Dennard)

Reduction in transistor size can be achieved in a manner that simultaneously

reduces transistor power consumption and increases transistor’s speed of
operation

Rule 3 : Economics of Production

Chip size (area) decides the production cost – not the transistor size or the
number of transistors on the chip

Reduction in transistor size, doubles the number of transistors per chip every 18
months and makes the chips functionally more powerful, faster with the nearly same
chip cost.

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Why Electronics/Devices
•Very large dynamic power range/high speed
•Very large time domain/ large gain range available
•Efficient processing capability
Electronic Devices
Made up of basic material (Silicon)
Diode , BJT, MOS devices (Parameters,
Characteristics, DC,AC,Transient)
Performance enhancement-energy,information (
use: small signal, power , speed, hybrid
MEMS/Opto/thermao/ piezo…)
Planar Silicon Integrated technology/ size and linewidth
/complexity/power consumption/reliability/cost
May be as high as 106 components per chip
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Concepts mandatory to be learnt :
# Extremely good understanding of semiconductor
Physics
# Devices made out of the use of these semiconductors
# Device Physics & model
# Device Characteristics and functional concepts
# Device application and performance understanding
# Device integration

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COURSE HANDOUT
1. Introduction and review of semiconductor fundamentals
2. Charge carriers in semiconductors, Effect of electric and
magnetic fields on drift of carriers
3. Metal Semiconductor contacts
4. p-n Junctions & model
5. Field Effect Transistors & Models
6. Bipolar Junction Transistors & Models
7. High speed semiconductor devices
8. Compound Semiconductor Device model &
application
9. Device design ,model and simulation

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Distinction between Metals, semiconductors and
insulators
Resistivity
( Ohm.cm)

Metal ( Copper) 10-6

Silicon 50X 10 3

Germanium 50

Insulator 1012

Conductivity = 1/ Resistivity

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Bonding in Metals
 The electron-sea model is a simple
depiction of a metal as an array of positive
ions surrounded by delocalized valence
electrons.
– Metals are good conductors of electricity because
of the mobility of these delocalized valence
electrons.

– A metal also conducts heat well because the mobile

electrons can carry additional kinetic energy.
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Bonding in Metals

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 Energy level Vs inter atomic spacing

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Semiconductors
Band Gap for Semiconductors
Eg (300K) Mobility(cm2/ Vs)
Diamond 5.5 eV 2000/2100
SiC 2.86 eV 900/50
GaN 3.4 eV 2000/
Si 1.12 eV 1450/500
Ge 0.67 eV 3900/1900
GaAs 1.42 eV 8500/400
InP 1.34 eV 4600/150
InxGa1-xAs 0.75 eV(x=0.53) 13800
13 January 2020 Electronic Devices BITS, Pilani Semiconductor 14
 Conductivity & Mobility
 I = -Aqnv = Aqn µn E
n d as Vd = -µn E
 J = (In+Ip)/A = ( J + J ) n p

 Jn = qnµn E = σn E
 Jp = qnµp E = σp E
 σ = σn + σp = (nµn +pµp )
 In a field Ex impulse is equal to momentum
change i.e.,
 mn* vd = - q Ex ɩn
 vd = - q Ex ɩn / mn* = -µn Ex
 µn = q ɩn / mn* and µp = q ɩp / mp* varies
with T-3/2
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Semiconductors
 Semiconducting elements form the basis of
solid state electronic devices.

– When silicon is doped with phosphorus, it

becomes an n-type semiconductor, in
which electric current is carried by
electrons.

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Semiconductors
 Semiconducting elements form the basis of
solid state electronic devices.
– When silicon is doped with boron, it
becomes a p-type semiconductor, in
which an electrical current is carried by
positively charged holes

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.

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 Holes
C
Energy band
Eg Model

Vacancy Bond
Model

J vb   (  q )v
vb
i
Current density
due to holes

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 Electrons in a periodic potential

E-k diagram
E

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k
Electronic Devices BITS, Pilani 20
 J vb  
filledband
(  q )vi  
emptystates
(  q )vi

 
emptystates
qvi

Holes behave as though they have positive

charge
Increasing energy
C of electron

Eg
V Increasing energy
of hole

Free electron has a mass given by :

9.11 x 10-31 kg
What is the mass of electron that is
1 1  2 E (k )
moving in a periodic potential ? 
Effective mass (m*) m*
ij
2
ki k j

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(tensorial) 21
 Within the same band effective mass
of electrons (holes) varies
Semiconductor Effective Mass (m*/m0)
Electr. Holes
Si 0.98 0.16
Ge 1.64 0.04
GaAs 0.067 0.082
GaSb 0.042 0.04
CdSe 0.13 0.45
Doped Semiconductors
Doping is the process of controlled, intentional
introduction of impurities in a given material.
For an undoped semiconductor, the number of holes
in the valence band equals number of electrons in the
conduction band.
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n 
BITS, Pilani
i pi 22
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 Single crystal ingot

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Direct and Indirect bandgap Semiconductors :

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 E-k diagram of GaAs/ AlAs

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E-k for an electron in field

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Direct Gap Semiconductor : Maximum of
the valence band and minimum of the
conduction band fall at the same place in k-
space. E.g. GaAs
## Can be used for making devices from
which we require light output.

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Charge Carriers in a Semiconductor
# In Semiconductors, due to a negotiable amount of
band gap, the conduction is of course dependent upon
temperature.

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ni= ( Nc Nd )1/2 exp(- Eg/2kT)= A T3/2 exp(- Eg/2kT )

How many electron hole pairs at room

temperature?
# 1.5 x 1010 electron-hole pairs in existence per
cm3 of silicon.
# But, there are 5 x 1022 atoms of silicon per cm3,
so there are only approximately 3 electron-hole
pairs per 1013 atoms.

Ni( per cm 3 ) = 1.5x10 10 for Si and 2.5 x 10 13 for Ge

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Fermi level
***Need of having concept of Fermi level

*** Distribution of electrons over a range of allowed

energy levels at thermal equilibrium is given by :
f(E) = 1
1 + e(E – EF) / kT
K – Boltzman’s constant = 8.62 x 10-5 eV / K= 1.38 x 10 -23 J / K

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Function f(E) , the Fermi Dirac distribution function ,
gives the probability that an available energy state at E
will be occupied by an electron at absolute temperature.

Put E = EF in f(E)
and we get
f(EF) = 1 / 2

Thus an energy state at the Fermi level has a probability

of ½ of being occupied by an electron.

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 Effect of temperature on Fermi level

Every
available
energy
state
upto EF
is filled
at 0K.

http://jas.eng.buffalo.edu/education/semicon/fermi/functionAndStates/functionAndStates.h

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Electron and hole concentrations at
equilibrium
To know the concentrations of electrons and holes in a SC, we
need to know the densities of available states .
e.g. Conc. Of electrons in CB is

no  
Ec
f ( E ).N ( E )dE

Density of energy states (cm-3) in

Probability of the energy range dE
occupancy
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Thermal equilibrium = No excitations
except thermal energy

Schematic band diagram , density of states,

Fermi Dirac distribution and the carrier
concentrations for intrinsic SCs at thermal
equilibrium
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 no = Nc f(Ec)
Probability of occupancy

Effective density of states

no = NC e-(EC-EF)/ KT (IN CONDUCTION BAND)

As EF moves closer to the CB, the electron

concentration increases.
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Schematic band diagram , density of states,
Fermi Dirac distribution and the carrier
concentrations for n-type SCs at thermal
equilibrium
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Similarly conc. of holes in the valence band is
po = Nv [ 1 – f(Ev) ]

Probability of finding an empty state at Ev.

po = NV e-(EF – EV)/KT (IN VALENCE BAND)

Hole concentration increases as EF moves closer to the

valence band.

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 no = NC e-(EC-EF)/ KT (IN CONDUCTION BAND)

po = NV e-(EF – EV)/KT (IN VALENCE BAND)

Equations are valid , whether the material is intrinsic or

doped, provided thermal equilibrium is maintained.

no po= [NC e-(EC-EF)/ KT].(NV e-(EF – EV)/KT )

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For an intrinsic material, EF lies at some intrinsic level .
Hence
EF = Ei

Thus for an intrinsic material , electron and hole

concentrations are
ni = NC e-(EC-Ei) / KT
pi = NV e-(Ei – EV) /KT
Find product of ni and pi from here :

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 Since ni = pi
WE GET

ni = (Nc Nv )1/2 e-(Eg / 2KT)

 THIS IS CALLED MASS-ACTION LAW

SHOWS THAT INTRINSIC CARRIER

-

CONCENTRATION VARIES WITH TEMPERATURE

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 Temperature
dependence
of carriers
concentrations

 2kT 
3/ 2
 E g / 2 kT
ni (T )  2 2  (mn* m *p ) 3 / 4 e
 h 

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 ni = NC e-(EC-Ei) / KT 1

no = NC e-(EC-EF)/ KT 2

Use value of Nc from 1 in 2 so as to get

no = ni e(EF-Ei)/ KT
Similarly :

po = ni e(Ei – EF)/KT
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Carrier concentration vs
inverse temperature
 Significance : Makes us understand about the
significance of doping, so as to increase
conduction rather manipulation of
temperature.

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Compensated Semiconductors
 A compensated semiconductor is one, which
contains both donor and acceptor type
impurities in the same region.
 Can be formed by diffusing acceptor
impurities in an n-type material or vice versa.

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 Compensation and Space charge neutrality

Ec
Ed
Ef

Ei

Ea
EV
Resultant concentration of all the e-s in the conduction band will
be Nd – Na.
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Space charge neutrality gives us the exact relationship
between electron, hole, donor and acceptor
concentrations :

Sum of positive charges = Sum of negative charges

( Holes and ionized donor atoms ) ( Electrons and
ionized acceptor atoms)

po + Nd+ = no + Na-
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 po + Nd+ = no + Na-
Explanation :
Say total n type po + ( Nd – nd) = no + ( Na – pa )
doping is Nd =
10
Out of that, 7
got ionized, so Electron and hole conc. In the
Nd+ = 7,
donor and acceptor energy states
remaining 3
(nd) left at respectively
donor levels Under complete ionization
only. Hence Nd Because nd
= Nd+ + nd no + Na = po + Nd and pa are
both = 0.
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 Under complete ionization
no = po + Nd - Na
Using law of mass action :
n op o = n i 2

no2 – (Nd – Na) no – ni2 = 0

Find no from this quadratic equation.

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Problems
 Determine the position of the fermi level w.r.t. the
valence band energy in p type GaAs at room
temperature. Doping concentrations are Na = 5 x
1016 cm-3 and Nd = 4 x 1015 cm-3. Take value of NC
at room temperature = 7 x 1018 cm-3.
 Silicon at T = 300 K contains an acceptor impurity
concentration of Na = 1016 cm3. Determine the
atomic percentage concentration of donor impurity
atoms, that must be added, so that the silicon is n
type and the fermi energy is 0.25 eV below the CB
edge.

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 Scattering Effects

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The approximate temperature dependence
for lattice and impurity scattering is T-3/2 and
T3/2 respectively.

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Hence , the mobilities due to two or more
scattering mechanisms add inversely .
1= 1+ 1
μ μ1 μ2

So, that is why, the mechanism causing the

lowest mobility value dominates.

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Mobility and impurity concentration :

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 Material Mobility
(Cm2 / V –
sec)
Intrinsic silicon at 300 K 1350

Silicon with a donor concentration 700

Of about 1017 Cm-3

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HIGH FIELD EFFECTS ( Contd.)

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 The Hall effect.
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B along the positive z-direction deflects holes
and electrons along the negative y-direction.
This leads to a Hall field ξH along the positive
y-direction for holes and along the negative y-
direction for electrons.

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Invariance of the Fermi level at equilibrium (
Contd.)
We consider two materials in intimate contact such
that electrons can move between the two as shown
below : E

Ef

Material 1 N2 ( E)
Density of states N1 ( E)
Fermi distribution f1 ( E) f2( E)
X

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Invariance of the Fermi level at
equilibrium ( Contd.)
At energy ‘E’ Rate of transfer of electrons from 1 to 2 
N1(E).f1(E). N2(E) [ 1 – f2(E) ]
E

Ef

Material 1 N2 ( E)
Density of states N1 ( E)
Fermi distribution f1 ( E) f2( E)
X
Rate of transfer of electrons from 2 to 1 
N2(E).f2(E). N1(E) [ 1 – f1(E) ]
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Invariance of the Fermi level at
equilibrium ( Contd.)

At Equilibrium , these two must be equal :

N1(E).f1(E). N2(E) [ 1 – f2(E) ] = N2(E).f2(E). N1(E) [ 1 – f1(E) ]
Rearranging terms , we have at energy E :
N1.f1.N2 – N1. f1.N2 . f2 = N2. f2 .N1 – N2. f2. N1. F1

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Invariance of the Fermi level at equilibrium (
Contd.)
We consider two materials in intimate contact such
that electrons can move between the two as shown
below : E

Ef

Material 1 N2 ( E)
Density of states N1 ( E)
Fermi distribution f1 ( E) f2( E)
X

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