SRI RAMAKRISHNA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

[Educational Service: SNR Sons Charitable Trust]

[Autonomous Institution, Reaccredited by NAAC with ‘A+’ Grade]
[Approved by AICTE and Permanently Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai]
[ISO 9001:2015 Certified and all eligible programmes Accredited by NBA]
Vattamalaipalayam, N.G.G.O. Colony Post, Coimbatore – 641 022.

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Circuit Theory – Session I

DC Circuit Analysis

Mr. R. Mohan Kumar, AP(Sl.G) / EEE

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 Session – I
DC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

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 Content
DC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
Charge, Current, Voltage, Power and Energy - Ideal
Voltage and Current Sources - Independent
Sources - Dependent Sources - Circuits Elements -
Voltage and Current Division in Series and Parallel
Circuits
Network analysis using Mesh and Nodal Analysis -
Source Transformation- Star Delta Transformation

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 Introduction
• Electric Circuit Theory and Electromagnetic
Theory are the two fundamental theories
upon which all branches of Electrical
Engineering are built.

• Many branches of Electrical Engineering, such

as Power, Electric Machines, Control,
Electronics, Communications, and
Instrumentation, are based on Electric Circuit
Theory.

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 Charge
• Charge is an electrical property of the atomic
particles of which matter consists, measured in
coulombs (C).

• The charge e on an electron is negative and equal in

magnitude 1.602 ×10-19 C , while a proton carries a
positive charge of the same magnitude as the
electron.
• The presence of equal numbers of protons and
electrons leaves an atom neutrally charged.
• 1C of charge, there are 1/(1.602 ×10-19) = 6.24 ×
1018 electrons
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 How you should be
thinking about electric
circuits?

Current: The actual

“substance” that is
flowing through the wires
of the circuit (electrons!)

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 Current
• Electric current is the time rate of change of
charge, measured in amperes (A).

1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second 1 Coulomb:

When 1 ampere current flows in
a conductor in 1 unit time, it is
called as 1 Coulomb.

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 Current
• Electric current i = dq/dt. The
unit of ampere can be derived as
1 A = 1 C/s.

• A Direct Current (DC) is a current

that remains constant with time.

• An Alternating Current (AC) is a

current that varies sinusoidally
with time. (reverse direction)

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 Problem
• How much charge is represented by 4,600
electrons?

• Each electron has -1.602×10-19 C.

• Hence 4,600 electrons will have
= -1.602×10-19 C/electron × 4,600 electrons
= 7.369 1016 C

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 Problem
A conductor has a constant current of 5 A.

How many electrons pass a fixed point on the

conductor in one minute?

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 Problem
Solution

Total no. of charges pass in 1 min is given by

5 A = (5 C/s)(60 s/min) = 300 C/min

Total no. of electronics pass in 1 min is given

300 C/min
= 19
 1.87 x10 21
electrons/ min
1.602 x10 C/electron

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 How you should be
thinking about electric
circuits?

Voltage: It is a force that

pushes the current through
the circuit (in this picture it
would be equivalent to
gravity)

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 Voltage
• Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy
required to move a unit charge through an
element from one point to another point.
• It is measured in volts (V).

• vab > 0 means the potential of a

is higher than potential of b.
• vab < 0 means the potential of a
is lower than potential of b.

where w is energy in joules (J) and q is charge in coulombs (C).

1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb = 1 newton-meter/coulomb

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 Power and Energy
• Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy,
measured in watts (W).

dw dw dq
• Mathematical expression: p    vi
dt dq dt
i i

+ +

v v

– –

Passive sign convention

P = +vi p = –vi
Absorbing Power Supplying Power

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 Power and Energy

• The law of conservation of energy

p0
• Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in joules (J).
t t
• Mathematical expression w   pdt   vidt
t0 t0

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 Electric Circuit
• An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical
elements.

It consists of three
basic elements:
• a battery
• a lamp
• connecting wires
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 Electric Current
A complete circuit is one where current can flow all the
way around. Note that the schematic drawing doesn’t
look much like the physical circuit!

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 Electric Current
In order for current to flow, there must be a path from
one battery terminal, through the circuit, and back to the
other battery terminal. Only one of these circuits will
work:

Closed path exist only in (c)

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 Measurement of Current, Voltage and Resistance

• Measuring Resistance: We can measure it

directly using an ohmmeter.
• Current is measured using an ammeter.
• Voltage is measured using a voltmeter.
• An ammeter is connected in the circuit but a
voltmeter must be connected across the
component.

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Problem: How much energy does a 100-W electric bulb
consume in two hours?
Solution:

• Energy = power x time

= 100 (W) x 2 (h) x 60 (min/h) x 60 (s/min)
= 720,000 J = 720 kJ (1 Joule = 1 Watt-sec)

This is the same as

• Energy = power x time = 100 W x 2 h = 200 Wh

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 Circuit Elements
Active and Passive
Elements
01
Lumped and
Distributed
Elements
02
Unilateral and
04 Bilateral
Elements

Linear and
Non-linear Elements
03
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 Active and Passive Elements
• Active element is an electronic component which supplies
energy to a circuit. Active elements have the ability to electrically
control electron flow
• Voltage sources & Current sources
• Generators (such as Alternators and DC generators)
• All different types of transistors (such as Bipolar Junction
Transistors, MOSFETS, FETs, and JFET)
• Diodes (such as Zener diodes, Photodiodes, Schottky diodes,
and LEDs)
• Passive elements cannot generate energy.
• Resistors
• Inductors
• Capacitors
• Transformers
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 Unilateral and Bilateral Elements
Unilateral Elements:
• Unilateral elements are those for which the V-
I characteristics change when the polarity of
the applied voltage is reversed.
• i.e V-I graph in the first and third quadrant is
not identical.
• Examples :- PN Junction Diode, BJT
• Circuits that contain at least one unilateral
element are called unilateral circuits.
Unilateral Elements
Bilateral Elements:
• Bilateral elements are just opposite of
unilateral elements i.e for bilateral elements
V-I characteristics remain the same on
reversing the voltage polarity.
• V-I graph in the first and third quadrant is
identical.
• Examples :- Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor
• Circuits containing only bilateral elements are
called bilateral circuits. Bilateral Elements
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 Linear and Non-linear Elements
A linear element is one whose plot between, voltage
across it and the current through it, comes out to be a
straight line.

i.e Elements which follow Ohm's law are

called linear elements.
In other words, elements for which impedance
remains constant for all values of voltage across them.
Examples :- resistors, inductors, capacitors etc. Linear element

A non-linear element (opposite of linear element) is

one whose impedance changes when the voltage
applied across it is changed.

i.e Elements which do not follow Ohm's law are

called non-linear elements.
Examples :- Pn junction diode, BJT, JFT, MOSFET or
semiconductor devices in general.

For such devices, the plot between, voltage across

Non-Linear element
them and the current through them, do not come out
to be a straight line.
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 Lumped and Distributed Elements
Lumped Elements:
In electrical circuits, if the physical size of the element is negligibly
small when compared with wave length of electromagnetic wave
propagation then the element is modelled as lumped elements. The
lumped element can be represented with its parameters like
resistance or inductance with its total value at a place.
Examples: Resistors, inductors, capacitors

Distributed Elements:
If the physical size of the element is comparable with wavelength of
electromagnetic wave propagation, then such an element is modelled
as distributed element. In these elements resistance, inductance or
capacitances are distributed and cannot be separated and modelled at
a single point. These are distributed throughout the circuit.
Example: Long transmission lines - in which the resistance,
capacitance and inductances are distributed throughout the line.
Elements in high frequency electronic circuits.
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 Types of Sources

01
• Independent Sources

02
• Dependent Sources

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 Independent Sources

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 Ideal independent voltage source
• An ideal dependent voltage source is characterized as
having a constant voltage across its terminals,
regardless of the load connected to the terminals.
• The ideal voltage source can supply any amount of
current.
• Furthermore, the ideal independent voltage source can
supply any amount of power.

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 Practical independent Voltage source
• Practical voltage sources such as batteries, their
internal resistance (RS) produces the same effect as a
resistance connected in series with an ideal voltage
source.

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 Ideal independent current sources
• An ideal independent current source is characterized
as providing a constant value of current,
regardless of the load.
• If the current source is truly ideal, it can provided any
value of voltage and any amount of power.

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 Practical independent Current source
• A practical current source is represented as an ideal
current source connected with the resistance (R) in
parallel.

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 Dependent Sources
• Dependent sources produce the amount of
voltage or current that is dependent on some
other voltage or current.
• Dependent sources are also called
as controlled sources.
• Dependent sources can be further divided into
the following two categories −
• Dependent Voltage Sources
• Dependent Current Sources

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 Dependent Voltage Sources
• A dependent voltage source produces a voltage across
its two terminals. The amount of this voltage is
dependent on some other voltage or current.
• Voltage Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS)
• Current Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS)

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 Dependent Current Sources
• A dependent current source produces a current. The
amount of this current is dependent on some other
voltage or current.
• Voltage Controlled Current Source (VCCS)
• Current Controlled Current Source (CCCS)

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 Source Transformation
• Source Transformation simply means
replacing one source by an equivalent
source.
• A practical voltage source can be
transformed into an equivalent practical
current source and similarly a practical
current source into voltage source.

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Voltage to Current source Transformation

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Current to Voltage source Transformation

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 Current Division Rule
• When two or more passive elements are connected in
parallel, the amount of current that flows through each
element gets divided (shared) among themselves from
the current that is entering the node.

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 Current Division Rule

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 Voltage Division Rule
• When two or more passive elements are connected in
series, the amount of voltage present across each element
gets divided (shared) among themselves from the
voltage that is available across that entire combination.

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 Voltage Division Rule

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 How you should be
thinking about electric
circuits?

Resistance: Friction that

impedes flow of current
through the circuit (rocks
in the river)

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 Resistor
• The main functionality of Resistor is either opposes or
restricts the flow of electric current.
• A Resistor is to limit the current flowing through an
electrical circuit.
• Resistance is measured in Ohm’s and is given the
symbol Ω
• Carbon, Film and Wire-wound are all types of resistors.

One Ohm (Ω) is defined as the

resistance offered by the material
when a current of one Ampere
flows between two terminals
with one Volt applied across it.

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 Types of Resistors

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 Resistor
• According to Ohm’s law, the voltage across resistor is
the product of current flowing through it and the
resistance of that resistor.

• Mathematically, it can be represented as

V=IR

I=V/R

• Where, R is the resistance of a resistor.

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 Resistor
• Power absorbed by the resistor is given by
P=VI
P=(IR)I
P=I2R

• Energy lost in a resistance in time t is given by

• Energy dissipated = Pt or VIt or V2t/R or even I2Rt
Joules

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 Resistors in Series
• Resistors are said to be connected in “Series”, when they are
daisy chained together in a single line.
• Since all the current flowing through the first resistor has no
other way to go it must also pass through the second resistor
and the third and so on.
• Resistors in series have a Common Current flowing through
them.

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 Resistors in Series
• The Equivalent Resistance or total resistance, RT of
the circuit must be equal to the sum of all the
individual resistors added together.

The total resistance ( RT ) of any two or more

resistors connected together in series will always
be GREATER than the value of the largest resistor
in the chain.

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 Series Resistor Voltage
• The voltage across each resistor is different due to its
resistance value.
• The total voltage in a series circuit which is the sum
of all the individual voltages added together.

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 Power in a Series Circuit
• The total power supplied by the source in any series
resistive circuit is equal to the sum of the powers in
each resistor in series.
Ps = P1 + P2 +P3 + …. + Pm
• Where m is the number of resistors in series.

• The total power in the series circuit is the total

voltage applied to a circuit, multiplied by the total
current.
Ps = Vs I = I2 RT
Ps = V2 / RT

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 Problem
• Calculate the voltage drops across X and Y
a) Without RL connected
b) With RL connected

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 Solution

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 Problem
• Find the equivalent resistance Req for the circuit
shown in Fig.

01-09-2023 EEE 53
 Solution

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 Capacitors and Inductors
• Capacitors and Inductors are the two
new linear elements.

• Unlike resistors, which can only

dissipate energy, these two elements
can only store energy, which can then
be retrieved at a later time.

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 Capacitor
• A capacitor is a passive element that stores energy in its
electric field.
• A capacitor consists of two conducting plates separated by
an insulator (or dielectric).
• When a voltage source is connected to the capacitor, the
source deposits a positive charge, +q, on one plate and a
negative charge, –q, on the other.
• The amount of charge is directly proportional to the voltage,
so that +
+

q  Cv
v C v C

- -
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 Capacitors
• C, called the capacitance of the capacitor, is the
constant of proportionality. C is measured in Farads
(F). From
q  Cv
• Capacitance is the ratio of the charge on one plate
of a capacitor to the voltage difference between the
two plates, measured in Farad (F).
• Thus, 1F = 1 coulomb/volt

• In reality, the value of C depends on the surface area

of the plates, the spacing between the plates, and the
permitivity of the material.
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 Capacitors
q  Cv q(t0 )
Note: v(t0 ) 
dq dv(t ) C
 i (t )  C
dt dt
1 t 1 t0 1 t
v(t )   i ( x)dx   i ( x)dx   i ( x)dx
C  C  C t0
1 t
v(t )  v(t0 )   i ( x)dx
C t0
We see that the capacitor voltage depends on the past history of
the capacitor current. Thus, we say that the capacitor has a
memory – a property we can exploit.
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 Energy stored in the capacitor
The instantaneous power delivered to the capacitor is
dv
p(t )  vi  Cv
dt
The energy stored in the capacitor is thus
dvt t
w   p(t )dt  C  v dt  C  vdv
 dt 

1 2
w  Cv (t ) joules
2

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 Energy stored in the capacitor
Assuming the capacitor was uncharged at t = -, and
knowing that
q  Cv
2
1 2 q (t )
w  Cv (t ) 
2 2C
represents the energy stored in the electric field
established between the two plates of the capacitor.
This energy can be retrieved. And, in fact, the word
capacitor is derived from this element’s ability (or
capacity) to store energy.
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 Important properties of Capacitor
• The capacitor has the following important properties:
1. When the voltage across a capacitor is constant (not changing
with time) the current through the capacitor:
i = C dv/dt = 0

• Thus, a capacitor is an open circuit to DC. If, however, a DC

voltage is suddenly connected across a capacitor, the capacitor
begins to charge (store energy).

2. The voltage across a capacitor must be continuous, since a jump

(a discontinuity) change in the voltage would require an infinite
current, which is physically impossible. Thus, a capacitor resists an
abrupt change in the voltage across it, and the voltage across a
capacitor cannot change instantaneously, whereas, the current
can.
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 Important properties of Capacitor
3. The ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy. It takes
power from the circuit when storing energy and returns
previously stored energy when delivering power to the
circuit.

4. A real, non-ideal, capacitor has a “leakage resistance”

which is modeled as shown below. The leakage resistance
may be as high as 100M, and can be neglected for most
practical applications.
RS

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 Parallel Capacitors
+ i1 i2 iN + i
i v C1 C2 CN i v Ceq
- -

dv dv dv
i1  C1 i2  C2 iN  C N
dt dt dt
dv dv
i  i1  i2    iN   C1  C2    C N   Ceq
dt dt
N
Ceq   Ck
k 1

Thus, the equivalent capacitance of N capacitors in parallel is

the sum of the individual capacitances. Capacitors in
parallel act like resistors in series.
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 Series Capacitors
C1 C2 CN
+
i
+ v 1- + v2 - + vN - DC v Ceq
DC
v -

i
1 1

1 vN 
v1   idt
C1
v2 
C2  idt
CN
idt

 1 1 1  1
v  v1  v2    vN         idt   idt
 C1 C2 CN  Ceq
N
1 1

Ceq k 1 Ck
The equivalent capacitance of N series connected capacitors is the
reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual capacitors.
Capacitors in series act like resistors in parallel.
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 Problem

Example: Find the equivalent capacitance seen

between terminals a and b of the circuit in figure
below.

Solution:
The 20µF and 5µF capacitors are in series, their equivalent
capacitance is (20  10 6 )  (5  10 6 )
6 6
 4 F
20  10  5  10
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• This capacitance (4µF) is in parallel with 6µF and 20µF,
their combined capacitance is
4 µF+ 6 µF+20 µF=30 µF

• This capacitance (30 µF) is in series with the 60µF, hence

the equivalent capacitance of the entire circuits is
(30  10 6 )  (60  10 6 )
Ceq  6 6
 20 F
30  10  60  10

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• Find the equivalent capacitance seen at the
terminals of the circuit in figure below.

Answer: 40µF

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 Inductors
• An inductor is a passive element that stores energy in its
magnetic field. Generally.
• An inductor consists of a coil of conducting wire wound
around a core. For the inductor
+
di (t )
v(t )  L v L
dt
-
where L is the inductance in henrys (H),
and 1 H = 1 volt second/ampere.

Inductance is the property whereby an inductor exhibits opposition

to the change of current flowing through it.
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 Inductors
di (t )
v(t )  L
dt
1 t 1 t0 1 t
i (t )   v( x)dx   v( x)dx   v( x)dx
L  L  L t0
1 t
i (t )  i (t0 )   v( x)dx
L t0
where i(t0) = the total current evaluated at t0 and i()  0
(which is reasonable since at some time there was no current in
the inductor).

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 Energy stored in an inductor
The instantaneous power delivered to an inductor is
di
p (t )  vi  Li
dt
The energy stored in the magnetic field is thus

di t t
wL (t )   p(t )dt  L  i dt  L  idi
 dt 

1 2
wL (t )  Li (t ) joules
2
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 Important properties of Inductor
1. An inductor acts like a short circuit to DC,
since from

v = 0 when i = a constant.

2. The current through an inductor cannot

change instantaneously, since an
instantaneous change in current would
require an infinite voltage, which is not
physically possible.

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 Important properties of Inductor
3. Like the ideal capacitor, the ideal inductor
does not dissipate energy.

4. A real inductor has a significant resistance

due to the resistance of the coil, as well as a
“winding capacitance”. Thus, the model
for a real inductor is shown below.
RW L

CW

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 Series Inductors
L1 L2 LN
+
i
+ v 1- + v2 - + vN - DC v Leq
DC v -
i
di di di
v1  L1 v2  L2 vN  LN
dt dt dt
di di
v  v1  v2    vN   L1  L2    LN   Leq
dt dt
N
Leq   Lk
k 1

The equivalent inductance of series connected inductors is

the sum of the individual inductances. Thus, inductances in
series combine in the same way as resistors in series.
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 Parallel Inductors
+ i1 i2 iN + i
i v L1 L2 LN i v Leq
- -

1

1 1 iN 
i1   vdt
L1
i2 
L2  vdt
LN
vdt

1 1 1  1
i  i1  i2    iN         vdt   vdt
 L1 L2 LN  Leq
N
1 1

Leq k 1 Lk
The equivalent inductance of parallel connected inductors is
the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual
inductances.
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Example: Find the equivalent inductance of the circuit shown
in Fig. below.

Solution:
The 10 H, 12 H, and 20 H inductors are in series; thus,
combining them gives a 42 H inductance. This 42 H inductor is
in parallel with the 7 H inductor so that they are combined, to
give 7  42
 6H
7  42
This 6 H inductor is in series with the 4 H and 8 H inductors.
Hence, 4  6  8  18 H
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Exercise: Calculate the equivalent inductance for the
inductive ladder network in Fig. below.

Answer: 25 mH

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 Example: Resistor Power

A 560 Ω resistor is connected to a circuit

which causes a current of 42.4 mA to flow
through it. Calculate the voltage across the
resistor and the power it is dissipating.

v = iR = (0.0424)(560) = 23.7 V

p = i2R = (0.0424)2(560) = 1.007 W

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 Power & Energy Example

If an electric fire uses 1.8 MJ of energy in a

time of 10 minutes, calculate the power output
of the fire.

P=?
E = 1.8 MJ = 1.8x106 J
t=10 minutes = 600 s

E 1.8  10 6
P   3000 Watts
t 600
9/1/2023
 Power Ratings of Appliances
• Different appliances have different power ratings.

500 W, 150 W, 1200 W,

100 W, 3000 W, 300 W,
800 W, 1500 W, 30 W,
60 W, 11 W
9/1/2023
Red flag indicates 9V

Live Neutral

9/1/2023
Even with the
switch open and
zero current the
lamp is still at 9V.

Live Neutral

9/1/2023
 This time, when
the switch is
open, the lamp
is at 0V and is
safe to touch.
Off

Live Neutral

9/1/2023
 Alternating Current (AC)
 An alternating current is continually changing direction
 The alternating voltage and current has a distinctive
waveform

In India,
Mains supply
voltage is 230V,
50Hz a.c.
supply.

9/1/2023
 Alternating Current (AC)

• We can measure the r.m.s (root mean square)

or effective value of a.c. quantities (current and
voltage) using Moving iron meters.

• Using the oscilloscope, we can measure the

peak voltage of the a.c. supply.

• The “effective”, voltage (or current) is always

less than the peak voltage (or current).

9/1/2023
 Alternating Current (AC)

• r.m.s (root mean square) or effective voltage

(or current is: 0.707 x peak voltage (or peak
current)
=(1/√2) x peak voltage (or peak current)

• This effective voltage (or current) is the

value of a.c. voltage (or current) which gives
the same heating or lighting effect as d.c.
voltage.
9/1/2023
 Mains Supply
 Mains supply voltage: 230V
 Frequency: 50Hz
 Voltage pushes the current. The voltage changes
polarity causing the current to change direction.

What is meant by the frequency of the supply?

• Alternating current flows one way then the other.
It is continually changing direction. The rate of the
changing direction is called the frequency and it is
measured in Hertz (Hz) which is the number of
(forward-backward) cycles in one second.
9/1/2023
 A.C. voltage
What is meant by the voltage of the supply?
• The voltage of a power supply or battery is a
measure of how much “push” it can provide
and how much energy it can give to the
electrical charge.

• The effective voltage or current in an a.c.

circuit can be measured using a.c. voltmeter
or ammeter.

9/1/2023
 A.C. voltage and current

• The voltage and current varies sinusoidally

with time:
• Instantaneous voltage (𝑣)
• 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝑓𝑡 = 𝑣𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑉
• Angular frequency, 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 (rad/s)
9/1/2023
Instantaneous current (𝑖)
𝑣𝑚
• 𝑖= 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝑓𝑡 = 𝑖𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝐴
𝑅
Multiplying the current (𝑖) and the voltage (𝑣)
gives the instantaneous power (𝑝):
𝑝 = 𝑣𝑚 𝑖𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 (watts)

9/1/2023
 RMS valueof Voltage
Vm
Vrms 
2

RMS valueof Current

Im
I rms 
2

Power( P )  Vrms .I rms  V .I (Watts)

If this poweris deliveredto resistor( R ), then
Power( P )  I rms .R
2

 Vrms .I rms  V .I (Watts)

9/1/2023
Important characteristics of basic elements R,L & C

9/1/2023
 STAR-DELTA TRANSFORMATION
• When a circuit cannot be simplified by normal series–parallel
reduction technique, the star-delta transformation can be
used. Figure (a) shows three resistors RA, RB and RC
connected in delta. Figure (b) shows three resistors R1 , R2
and R3 connected in star.

• These two networks will be electrically equivalent if the

resistance as measured between any pair of terminals is the
same in both the arrangements.
1-Sep-23 20EE201- Electric Circuits 92
 Delta to Star Transformation
• Referring to delta network shown in Fig. (a), the resistance
between terminals 1 and 2

• Referring to the star network shown in Fig. (b), the resistance

between terminals 1 and 2 = R1+R2 . Since the two networks
are electrically equivalent,

1-Sep-23 20EE201- Electric Circuits 93

 Delta to Star Transformation

• Thus, star resistor connected to a terminal is equal to the

product of the two delta resistors connected to the same
terminal divided by the sum of the delta resistors.

1-Sep-23 20EE201- Electric Circuits 94

 Star to Delta Transformation

Thus, delta resistor connected between the two terminals is the sum of two star
resistors connected to the same terminals plus the product of the two resistors
divided by the remaining third star resistor.
1-Sep-23 20EE201- Electric Circuits 95
 Note
(1) When three equal resistors are connected in delta (Fig.
below), the equivalent star resistance is given by,

(2) Star-delta transformation can also be applied to network

containing inductors and capacitors.
1-Sep-23 20EE201- Electric Circuits 96
 Problem
Find an equivalent resistance between A and B in the network
of Fig. below.

Solution:
Converting the two delta networks formed by resistors of 4.5 Ω,
3 Ω and 7.5 Ω into equivalent star networks.

1-Sep-23 20EE201- Electric Circuits 97

 Solution

1-Sep-23 20EE201- Electric Circuits 98

 Problem
Find an equivalent resistance between A and B in the network
of Fig. below.

Solution
Converting the star network formed by resistors of 3 Ω, 4 Ω and
6 Ω into an equivalent delta network.

1-Sep-23 20EE201- Electric Circuits 99

 Solution

1-Sep-23 20EE201- Electric Circuits 100

 Ohm’s Law
 Discovered in 1825
 Relates 3 key quantities in electrical circuits
 Voltage (V)
 Current (I)
 Resistance (R)
V=IxR
Georg Simon Ohm
Voltage = Current x Resistance
In scientific units: Volts = Amperes x Ohms
Think of the voltage as the FORCE which is DRIVING the total
electrical flow rate (current), against the resistance encountered
in a portion of an electrical circuit.

01-09-2023 EEE 101

 Ohm’s Law
 Ohm’s law states that the voltage or potential difference
between two points is directly proportional to the current or
electricity passing through the resistance, and directly
proportional to the resistance of the circuit.
 The formula for Ohm’s law is V=IR.

Applications of Ohm’s Law

 Ohm’s law helps us in determining either voltage, current or
impedance or resistance of a linear electric circuit when the
other two quantities are known to us.
 It also makes power calculation simpler.

01-09-2023 EEE 102

 Limitations of ohm’s law
 Ohm’s law is not applicable to unilateral networks. Unilateral
networks allow the current to flow in one direction. Such
types of network consist elements like a diode, transistor etc.
 Ohm’s law is also not applicable to non – linear elements.
Non-linear elements are those which do not have current
exactly proportional to the applied voltage that means the
resistance value of those elements changes for different
values of voltage and current.
Examples of non – linear elements are the thyristor.

01-09-2023 EEE 103

 Problem
An electric heater draws 8A for 250V supply. What is its power
rating? Also find the resistance of the heater element.
Solution

Twenty lamps each of 60 W are used each for 4 hours per day in
a building. Calculate (i) the current drawn when all the lamps
are working and (ii) the monthly electricity charge at 55 paise
per unit. Assume supply of 240 V.
Solution

01-09-2023 EEE 104

 Kirchhoff’s Laws
 The entire study of electric network analysis is based mainly
on Kirchhoff’s laws.
 It is essential to familiarise with the following terms:
Node: A node is a junction where two or more network
elements are connected together.
Branch: An element or number of elements connected between
two nodes constitute a branch.
Loop: A loop is any closed part of the circuit.
Mesh: A mesh is the most elementary form of a loop and
cannot be further divided into other loops.
All meshes are loops but all loops are not meshes.

01-09-2023 EEE 105

 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
 The algebraic sum of currents meeting at a junction or node
in an electric circuit is zero.
 Consider five conductors, carrying currents I1, I2, I3, I4 and I5
meeting at a point O as shown in Fig.
 Assuming the incoming currents to be positive and outgoing
currents negative, we have

 Thus, the above law can also be stated as the sum of currents
flowing towards any junction in an electric circuit is equal to
the sum of the currents flowing away from that junction.
01-09-2023 EEE 106
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
 The algebraic sum of all the voltages in any closed circuit or
mesh or loop is zero.
 If we start from any point in a closed circuit and go back to
that point, after going round the circuit, there is no increase
or decrease in potential at that point.
 This means that the sum of emfs and the sum of voltage
drops or rises meeting on the way is zero.
 A rise in potential can be assumed to be positive while a fall
in potential can be considered negative. The reverse is also
possible and both conventions will give the same result.

01-09-2023 EEE 107

 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

01-09-2023 EEE 108

 Mesh Analysis
 A mesh is defined as a loop which does not contain any other
loops within it.
 Mesh analysis is applicable only for planar networks.
 A network is said to be planar if it can be drawn on a plane
surface without crossovers.
 In this method, the currents in different meshes are assigned
continuous paths so that they do not split at a junction into
branch currents.
 If a network has a large number of voltage sources, it is
useful to use mesh analysis.
 Basically, this analysis consists of writing mesh equations by
Kirchhoff’s voltage law in terms of unknown mesh currents.

01-09-2023 EEE 109

 Steps to be Followed in Mesh Analysis
 Identify the mesh, assign a direction to it and assign an
unknown current in each mesh.
 Assign the polarities for voltage across the branches.
 equaApply KVL around the mesh and use Ohm’s law to
express the branch voltages in terms of unknown mesh
currents and the resistance.
 Solve the simultaneous tions for unknown mesh currents

01-09-2023 EEE 110

 Mesh Analysis

01-09-2023 EEE 111

 Mesh Analysis

01-09-2023 EEE 112

 Problem
• For the circuit in Fig, find the branch
currents I1, I2 and I3 using mesh analysis.

01-09-2023 EEE 113

 Solution
By using KVL, For mesh 1,

By using KVL, For mesh 2,

Using the substitution method

01-09-2023 EEE 114

 Supermesh Analysis
 Meshes that share a current source with other meshes, none
of which contains a current source in the outer loop, form a
supermesh.
 A path around a supermesh doesn’t pass through a current
source.
 A path around each mesh contained within a supermesh
passes through a current source.
 The total number of equations required for a supermesh is
equal to the number of meshes contained in the supermesh.
 A supermesh requires one mesh current equation, that is, a
KVL equation.
 The remaining mesh current equations are KCL equations.

01-09-2023 EEE 115

 Node Analysis
 Node analysis is based on Kirchhoff’s current law which
states that the algebraic sum of currents meeting at a point is
zero.
 Every junction where two or more branches meet is regarded
as a node.
 One of the nodes in the network is taken as reference node or
datum node.
 If there are n nodes in any network, the number of
simultaneous equations to be solved will be (n − 1).

01-09-2023 EEE 116

 Steps to be followed in Node Analysis
 Assuming that a network has n nodes, assign a reference node and
the reference directions, and assign a current and a voltage name
for each branch and node respectively.
 Apply KCL at each node except for the reference node and apply
Ohm’s law to the branch currents.
 Solve the simultaneous equations for the unknown node voltages.
 Using these voltages, find any branch currents required.
Supernode Analysis
 Nodes that are connected to each other by voltage sources, but not
to the reference node by a path of voltage sources, form a
supernode.
 A supernode requires one node voltage equation, that is, a KCL
equation. The remaining node voltage equations are KVL
equations.
01-09-2023 EEE 117
 Problem
Calculate the currents supplied by the batteries in the network
shown in Figure below.

01-09-2023 EEE 118

 Solution

01-09-2023 EEE 119

 Solution

01-09-2023 EEE 120

 Problem
Using Nodal analysis, determine the current in 20 ohm resistor.

01-09-2023 EEE 121

 Solution

01-09-2023 EEE 122

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