Program- ComputerClickEngineering

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Course- Electrical Engineering
Course Code- R18 EE2310
Faculty Name- Prof. M. B.Gaikwad

Unit No- 01
 Syllabus

..\MPECS 18 CURRICULUM-COMPUTER PAGE NO 62.pdf

 Electric circuit
• An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements
linked together in a closed path so that electric current may flow
continuously
• Circuit diagrams are here
 Types of Electric Circuit

Current

Resistance

- + - +
Voltage

 Closed circuit (switch closed) • Open circuit (switch open)

 Current flow • No current flow
 Lamp is on • Lamp is off
 Lamp is resistance, uses energy • Lamp is resistance, but is not
to produce light (and heat) using any energy
 Charge

Characteristic property of subatomic

particles responsible for electric phenomena

- + Proton

−1.602×10−19 C 1.602×10−19 C

The unit of quantity of electric charge is coloumb (C)

1 coloumb = 6.25 × 1018 e

e = elementary charge = charge of proton

 Electric Current

The electric current is the amount of charge per unit time that
passes through a surface that is perpendicular to the motion of the
charges.

Q
I .
t

The SI unit of electric current is the ampere (A)

 Current

 Conventional Current
assumes that current flows out
Conventional
of the positive side of the Current
battery, through the circuit,
and back to the negative side
of the battery.
 Electron Flow is that the
electrons flow out of the
Electron
negative side of the battery, Flow
through the circuit, and back
to the positive side of the
battery.
 Voltage
Driving “force” of electrical current between two points

Vab Voltage at terminal a with respect to terminal b

Vba Voltage at terminal b with respect to terminal a

Vab = -Vba
Note: In a circuit, voltage is often defined relative to “ground”
 Voltage

The voltage across an element is the work (energy) required to move a

-
unit of positive charge from the “ ” terminal to the “+” terminal.

A volt is the potential difference (voltage) between

two points when 1 joule of energy is used to move 1
coulomb of charge from one point to the other
 Electromotive Force (emf)

Within a battery, a chemical reaction occurs that transfers

electrons from one terminal (leaving it positively charged)
to another terminal (leaving it negatively charged).
Because of the positive and negative charges on the battery
terminals, an electric potential difference exists between
them. The maximum potential difference is called the
electromotive force* (emf) of the battery.
The electric potential difference is also known as the
voltage, V.
The SI unit for voltage is the volt
Potential Difference
 Electric Power: P
Power is the rate of doing work
Since the electrical energy is charge times voltage (QV), the above
equation becomes,
QV Energy
P . P .
time
t
Since the current is charge flow per unit time (Q/t), the above
equation becomes,
QV Q
P  V  V  I
t t
Since V = IR, the above equation can also be written as,
2 V2
P  VI  I R  .
R
SI Unit of Power: watt(W)
 Electrical Energy:E

•Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in joules (J).

•Our daily life depends on electrical energy.

•We use many electrical devices that transform electrical energy into
other forms of energy.

• For example, a light bulb transforms electrical energy into light and
heat.

•Electrical devices have various power requirements.

 Ohm’s Law
• Defines the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in
an electric circuit
• Ohm’s Law:
At constant temperature Current in a resistor varies in direct
proportion to the voltage applied to it and is inversely
proportional to the resistance.
• Stated mathematically:

V + V -
I
R
I R
Where: I is the current (amperes)
V is the potential difference (volts)
R is the resistance (ohms)
 Ohm’s Law Triangle

V V
I ( amperes, A )
I R R

V V
R ( ohms,  )
I R I

V V  I R ( volts, V )
I R
 Limitations of Ohm’s law:

• Not applicable for non linear devices. Eg. Zener diode.

• can’t be applicable for non metallic conductors. Eg. Human body.

• Holds good only at constant temperature.

 AC and DC Current

If the charges move around a circuit in

the same direction at all times, the current
is said to be direct current (dc), which is
the kind produced by batteries.

In contrast, the current is said to be

alternating current (ac) when the charges
move first one way and then the opposite
way, changing direction from moment to
moment. Outlets give us ac voltage.
DC and AC Circuits
•Series Circuit:
A series circuit comprises of the head to
head connection between two components.
Current always remains in such circuits while
the voltage divides among series components.

•Parallel Circuit:
A parallel circuit configuration involves
two or more components in which one end of
all components share a common node and
other end shares another common node.
Connections

•Series components share one single

node and there is no other connection. In
simple terms, the head of one component
connects to the tail of other one and
there is no other connection in between
them.

•On the other hand heads of all parallel

components share one common node,
and tail shares other common nodes.
Voltage:
•The input voltage is divided into series components. i.e V=v1+v2+v3+
…+vn
•The voltage across parallel components always equals the applied
input voltage. i.e V=v1=v2=v3=…=vn

Current
•Current always remains same in series components. i.e I=i1=i2=i3=…
=in
•Current is shared between the parallel connected devices. i.e
I=i1+i2+i3+…+in

Limitations
•A damaged component in series circuit opens the overall circuit thus
abolishing the current flow through the circuit.
•In a parallel circuit, a damaged component opens the branch, other
parts of circuit remain intact.
 DC Circuits

DC circuit and Resistance.pdf

 Kirchoff’s Laws

•Kirchhoff’s Laws are divided into two types i.e Kirchhoff

Current Law (KCL) and Kirchhoff Voltage Law (KVL)

•KCL is based on the law of conservation of charge.

•while KVL is based on the principle of conservation of energy.

 AC FUNDAMENTALS
•Alternating Current: An alternating current is the current
which changes periodically both in magnitude and direction.

•The machines which are used to generate electrical

voltages are called “GENERATORS”.

• The generators which generate purely sinusoidal

A.C. voltage are called “ALTERNATORS”

•Sinusoidal Voltage : A sinusoidal voltage is an oscillating

voltage that can be described mathematically through the use
of a sine function.

•A.C voltage is generated by rotating a coil in a magnetic field or

by rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil.
 Principle of Generator

Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction

•The basic principle of an alternate is the

principle of Electromagnetic Induction.

•It says that whenever there is a relative motion

between the conductor and the magnetic field in
which it is kept, an e.m.f gets induced in the
conductor.
 Elementry Alternator
Construction:
Construction of single wave alternator:

•It consists of a permanent magnet of two poles.

•A single turn rectangular coil is kept on the field of the permanent
magnet.
•This coil is made up of same conducting material like copper or
aluminium .
•The coil is made up of two conductors namely a-b and c-d.
•Such two conductors are connected at one end to a coil.
•The coil is so placed that it can be rotated about its own axis in
clockwise or anticlockwise direction.
•The remaining two ends C1 and C2 of the coil are connected to the
rings mounted on the shaft called slip rings.
•Slip rings are also rotating members of the alternator.
•The two brushes P and Q are resting on the slip rings.
•The brushes are stationary and are just making contacts with slip
rings.
•The slip rings and brush assembly is necessary to collect the
current induced in the rotating coil and make it available to the
stationary external resistance.
Working:

•The coil is rotated in anticlockwise direction.

•While rotating, the conductors ab and cd cut the lines of
flux of the permanent magnet.
•Due to faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, an
e.m.f gets induced in the conductors.
•The e.m.f. drives a current through resistance R connected
across the brush P and Q.
•The magnitude of the induced e.m.f depends on the
position of the coil in magnetic field.
• Let us see the relation between magnitude of the induced
e.m.f and the position of the coil.
Consider different instants and the different position
of the coil.
Instant 1:
•The plane of the coil is perpendicular to
the direction of the magnetic field.

•The instantaneous component of velocity

of the conductors ab and cd is parallel to
the magnetic field.

•So there cannot be the cutting of the flux

lines by the conductors.

•Hence, no e.m.f will be generated in the

conductors ab and cd and no current will
flow through the external resistance R.
Instant 2:

•When the coil is rotated in

anticlockwise direction through some angle
,then the velocity will have two components v
sin (perpendicular to flux lines) and v cos
(parallel to the flux lines).

•Due to v sin  component, there will be cutting

of the flux and proportionally,there will be
induced e.m.f un the conductors ab and cd.

•This e.m.f will drive a current through the

external resistance R.
Instant 3:
•As angle ‘’ increases , the
component of velocity acting
perpendicular to flux lines increases,
hence induced e.m.f also increases.

•At  =90 ,the plane of the coil is

parallel to the plane of the magnetic
field while the component of
velocity cutting the lines of flux is at
its maximum .

•So induced e.m.f in this position, is

at its maximum value.
•So, as  increases from 0  to 90 ,e.m.f induces in the
conductors increases gradually from o to maximum
value.
Instant 4:
•As the coil continues to rotate further from =90 to
180,the component of velocity perpendicular to
magnetic field starts decreasing.
•Hence, gradually decreasing the magnitude of the
induced e.m.f.

Instant 5:

•In this position, the velocity component is fully parallel

to the lines of flux similar to instant1.

•There is no cutting of flux, so no induced e.m.f in both

the conductors.

•Hence,current through external circuit is also zero.

Instant 6:
•As the coil rotates beyond =180,the conductor ab
uptill now cutting flux lines in one particular
direction reverses the direction of cutting the flux
lines.

•Similiar is the behaviour of conductor cd.

•So,direction of induced e.m.f in conductor ab is

opposite to the direction of induced e.m.f in it for
the rotation of =0 to 180.

•Similirly,the direction of induced e.m.f in conductor

cd also reverses.The change in direction of induced
e.m.f occurs because the direction of rotation of
conductors ab and cd reverses with respect to the
field as  varies from 180 to 360.
• This process continues a coil rotates further. At
=270 again, the induced e.m.f achieves it’s maximum value
but the direction of this e.m.f in both the conductors is opposite
to the previous maximum position i.e. at =90.
•From =270 to 360 ,induced e.m.f decreases without
change in direction and at  =360 ,coil achieves the starting
position with zero induced e.m.f.

•So, as  varies from 0  to 360 ,the e.m.f in the conductor ab

or cd varies in an alternating manner i.e. zero, increasing to
achieve maximum in one direction, decreasing to zero,
increasing to achieve maximum in other direction and again
decreasing to zero.

•This set of variation repeats for every revolution as the

conductor rotate in a circular motion within a certain speed.
The instantaneous value of the induced e.m.f in any conductor,as it is
rotated from  =0  to 360 ,i.e. through one complete revolution can
be represented as shown in the below figure.
 Equation of Alternating Voltage and Current
-To derive the equation of an alternating quantity,consider
single turn,2 pole alternator.
•The coil is rotated with constant angular velocity in the
magnetic field.
Let,
-B=Flux density of the magnetic field
-l=Active length of the each conductor
-r=radius of circular path traced by conductors
-  =Angular velocity of coil
-v=linear velocity of the each conductor

Consider an instant where coil has rotated through angle  from

the position corrresponding to  =0  i.e. from the instant where
induced e.m.f is zero.

It requires time t to rotate through .

 So,  in radians can be expressed as,
=t (radians)

The position of the coil is shown in the below figure.

The instantaneous peripheral velocity of any conductor can be resolved
into two components as shown in the figure.
-The components of velocity(v) are,

(1) Parallel to the magnetic flux lines(v cos  )

(2) Perpendicular to the magnetic flux lines(v sin  )
• Out of the two , due to the component parallel to the flux lines , there
cannot be the generation of e.m.f as there cannot be the cutting of the
flux lines .
• Hence , the component which is acting perpendicular to the magnetic
flux lines i.e. v sin  is responsible for the generation of the em.f.

• According to the faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction , the

expression for the generated e.m.f in each conductor is,

E=B l v sinθ(volts)

• Total e.m.f. generated in the coil, e= 2Blv sinθ volts

-The active length ‘l’ means the length of the conductor which is
under the influence of the magnetic field

Now,
Em= 2B l v ( volts)

= Maximum value of the induced em.f in the conductor

•This is achieved at θ=90  and is the peak value or amplitude of the
sinusoidal induced e.m.f.

•Hence,equation giving instantaneous value of the generated e.m.f can

be expressed as,

e=Em sinθ (volts)

v=Vm sinθ (volts)

 •This alternating e.m.f drives a current through the electrical load
which also varies in similar manner.

•Its frequency as the same as the frequency of the generated e.m.f.Hence,it

can be expressed as,
i=Im sinθ (Ampere)

•Where Im sinθ is the maximum or peak value of the current.

•This maximum value depends on the resistance of the electric circuit to

which an e.m.f is applied.

•The instantaneous value of the sinusoidal current set by the e.m.f can be
expressed as,
i=Im sin(wt) (Ampere)
Peak Value:
• The maximum value attained by an alternating quantity during one
cycle is called its Peak value.
• It is also known as the maximum value or amplitude or crest value.
• The sinusoidal alternating quantity obtains its peak value at 90
degrees as shown in the figure below.
• The peak values of alternating voltage and current is represented by
Em and Im respectively.
Average Value:
• The average of all the instantaneous values of an alternating
voltage and currents over one complete cycle is called Average
Value.

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• I av= 0.637 Im
R.M.S Value:
• The effective or r.m.s value of an alternating current is given by
that direct current which, when flowing through a given time,
produces the same amount of heat as produced by the alternating
current when flowing through the same circuit for the same time.

• In other words, the R.M.S value is defined as the square root of

means of squares of instantaneous values.

• I r.m.s= 0.707 Im
Peak Factor:

• Peak Factor is defined as the ratio of maximum value to the

R.M.S value of an alternating quantity.

• The alternating quantities can be voltage or current.

The value of Peak Factor is 1.4142

Form Factor:

• The ratio of the root mean square value to the average value of an
alternating quantity (current or voltage) is called Form Factor.

• The average of all the instantaneous values of current and voltage

over one complete cycle is known as the average value of the
alternating quantities.

Mathematically, it is expressed as:

The value of Form Factor is 1.11

Phasor Representation :

An alternating quantity can be represented using

(i) Waveform
(ii) Equations i.e i=Im sin ωt
(iii) Phasor
•A sinusoidal alternating quantity can be represented by a rotating line
called a Phasor.

•A phasor is a line of definite length rotating in anticlockwise direction at

a constant angular velocity

•The waveform and equation representation of an alternating current is as

shown.

•This sinusoidal quantity can also be represented using phasors.

•Draw a line OA of length equal to Im.
•This line OA rotates in the anticlockwise direction with a uniform
angular velocity ω rad/sec and follows the circular trajectory shown in
figure.
• At any instant, the projection of OA on the y-axis is given by
OB=OAsinθ = Imsinωt.
•Hence the line OA is the phasor representation of the sinusoidal current
Phase:

Definition: The phase of an alternating quantity is defined as the

divisional part of a cycle through which the quantity moves forward
from a selected origin.

•When the two quantities have the same frequency, and their maximum
and minimum point achieve at the same point, then the quantities are
said to have in the same phase.
In Phase:

•Consider the two alternating currents Im1 and Im2 shown in the
figure below.
•Both the quantity attains their maximum and minimum peak point
at the same time. And the zero value of both the quantities
establishes at the same instant.
Phase Difference:

Definition: The phase difference between the two electrical quantities is

defined as the angular phase difference between the maximum possible
value of the two alternating quantities having the same frequency.

•In other words, the two alternating quantities have phase difference when
they have the same frequency, but they attain their zero value at the
different instant.

•The angle between zero points of two alternating quantities is called angle
of phase differences.
•Consider the two alternating currents of magnitudes Im1 and Im2 are
shown vectorially.
•Both the vector is rotating at the same angular velocity of ω radians per
seconds.
•The two current obtains the zero value at different instants.
•Therefore, they are said to have the phase difference of angle φ.
Power Factor:

•Power factor can be stated as leading or lagging to show the sign of

the phase angle between the current and voltage waveforms.

•The term ‘lagging power factor’ is used where the load current lags
behind the supply voltage.

•It is a property of an electrical circuit that signifies that the load

current is inductive.

•For capacitive circuits, where the load current leads the supply
voltage, the term ‘leading power factor’ is used.

•It is a property of an electrical circuit that signifies that the load

current is capacitive.

•So, capacitive load are leading whereas inductive loads are lagging.