EEE 2230

ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

LECTURE 1

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 Course Road Map
• Basic Concepts and definitions
• Electric current, voltage, power and energy
• Analysis of Simple circuits
• Ohms Laws, Resistance variation, KCL, KVL,
• Analysis of series and parallel circuits, voltage and current division.
• Nodal and Mesh analysis, source transformation, Star- Delta connection of
resistors.
• Circuit Theorems:
• Thevenin’s Theorem
• Norton’s Theorem
• Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
• Superposition Theorem
• Magnetic Circuits and Electric Field Circuits

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• Inductance & Capacitance
• Energy storage devices, inductance, power and energy in an inductor, combination of series
and parallel inductors. RL- transients
• Capacitance, power and energy in a capacitor, combination of series and parallel capacitors,
RC- transients
• Sinusoidal circuit analysis: transients analysis in RLC circuits (series and parallel ac
circuits), Vector and complex numbers: a.c circuits
• Two port systems: z- parameters, y-parameters and H-parameters
Sources
1. D. E. Scott, An Introduction to circuit analysis: A system approach, New York, McGraw-
Hill
2. E. Hughes, Electrical and Electronic Technology, Prentice Hall
3. U.A. Bakshi and V.U. Bakshi, Basic Engineering, Technical Publications Pune,
4. V. K. Mehta, Rohit Mehta - Basic Electrical Engineering-S Chand (2017)
3
 Introduction
• Circuit analysis is the foundation for any aspect of electrical technology.
• An electric circuit or electric network is an interconnection of electrical
elements linked together in a closed path so that an electric current may
continuously flow.
• Alternatively, an electric circuit is essentially a pipe-line that facilitates the
transfer of charge from one point to another.
• Need to understand the elements that makes an electric circuit.

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 Electric Parameters
• The most elementary quantity in the analysis of electric circuits is the electric charge.
• Interest in electric charge is centered around its motion results in an energy transfer.
• In all the atoms, there exists number of electrons which are very loosely bound to its
nucleus. Such electrons are free to wonder about, through the space under the
influence of specific forces.
• Total deficiency or addition of excess electrons in an atom is called its charge and the
element is said to be charged. (either positively or negatively charged)

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 Electric Parameters
• Charge is the intrinsic property of matter responsible for electrical phenomena.
• The quantity of charge can be expressed in terms of the charge on one electron.
which is 1.602 x10-19 coulombs.
• Thus, 1 coulomb is the charge on 6.24 x 1018 electrons.
• The current flows through a specified area (A), is defined by the electric charge
passing through that area per unit time. Thus we define as the charge expressed
in coulombs.

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 Electric Parameters
• An electrical effort required to drift the free electrons in one particular direction
in a conductor is called electromotive force (e.m.f.). (volts)
• The direction depends on how the external electrical effort is applied to the
conductor.
• Electromotive force (e.m.f.) maintains
potential difference while p.d. causes
current to flow.
• The e.m.f. is maintained across the
+ve and –ve electrodes of the cell,
due to the chemical action inside the
solution contained in the cell
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 Electric Parameters
• The flow of free electrons due to an electrical effort in a closed electric circuit can
be defined as electric current. Unit being ampere, (A)
• Current can also be defined as the rate of flow of charge in a closed loop electric
circuit. 1A = I C/s

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 Electric Parameters
• Every charged particle has a tendency of doing work, whether its attraction or
repelling.
• This ability of a charged particle to do work is called its electric potential. (Volt)

• If a current flows into terminal a to b of an element, then a voltage or potential

difference exists between the two terminals.
• The voltage across an element is the work done in moving a positive charge of 1
coulomb from first terminal through the element to second terminal. The unit of
voltage is, V or J/C
• p.d. is the difference between the electric potentials at any two given points in a circuit. 9
 Electric Parameters
• Electrical Power, (P) in a circuit is the rate at which energy is absorbed or
produced within a circuit.

• A source of energy such as a voltage will produce or deliver power while the
connected load absorbs it.

• Light bulbs and heaters for example, absorb electrical power and convert it into
either heat, or light, or both.

• The higher their value or rating in watts the more electrical power they are
likely to consume.

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 Electric Parameters
• Power is defined as the rate of doing work or transferring energy.
• The unit of power is the watt (W) where one watt is one joule per second.

• Energy is the capacity to perform work. Energy and power are related to each
other by the following equation:

• Although the unit of energy is the joule, when dealing with large amounts of
energy, the unit used is the kilowatt hour (kWh), where1 kWh = 1000 watt hour
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• The 'electricity meter' in the home records the number of kilowatt-hours used
and is thus an energy meter.
• Those using modern pre-paid meters purchase units ('tokens') in for of
KWhrs

Practice Problems
1. A refrigerator takes a current of 0.5A from a 240V supply. Estimate the
additional cost per month of electricity incurred by using this refrigerator if 1
unit of energy costs Kshs13. The refrigerator is connected to power throughout.

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Solution:
• The power rating of the refrigerator is: P = V I = 0.5 x 240 = 120 W = 0.12 kW
• The Energy Consumed per Month (electrical units per month) = 0.12 x 24 x 30 = 86.4
kWh
• Therefore the Additional cost of using the refrigerator is: 86.4 x13 = Kshs. 1123.2
N/B: This cost is normally reduced significantly in modern refrigerators since they have
means of cutting of supply when the required temperature is attained.

2. Determine the power dissipated by the element of an electric fire of resistance 20Ω when
a current of 10A flows through it. If the fire is on for 6 hours determine the energy used and
the cost if 1 unit of electricity costs Kshs. 17

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Example: Consider the circuit with the following parameter value, v = 8e-t V
and i = 20e-t A for t  0. Find the power absorbed and the energy supplied by the
element over the first second of operation. Assume that v and i are zero for t > 0

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 Ohm’s Law
• Ohm’s law states that the current I flowing in a circuit is
directly proportional to the applied voltage V and inversely
proportional to the resistance R, provided the temperature
remains constant.

I= ?

30V 75Ω

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Ohm’s Law Pie Chart

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 Resistance Variation
• Resistance is the physical property of an element or device that impedes the flow of current; it is
represented by the symbol, R.
• An element is said to have a resistance of 1 ohm, if it permits 1A of current to flow through it when
1V is impressed across its terminals.
• The resistance of an electrical conductor depends on four factors, these being:
• the length of the conductor: the resistance is directly proportional to the length.
• the cross-sectional area of the conductor: the resistance is inversely proportional to the cross-
sectional area of the material.
• the type of material : conductors, insulators or semiconductors
• the temperature of the material.

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Effect of Temperature on Resistance

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• The temperature coefficient of resistance of a material is the increase in the
resistance of a 1Ω resistor of that material when it is subjected to a rise of
temperature of 1oC.
• The symbol used for the temperature coefficient of resistance is α
• If the resistance of a material at 0oC is known the resistance at any other
temperature can be determined from:

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Summary of Temperature Co-efficient Relations

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 Practice Questions
Qn1. An aluminium cable has a resistance of 27Ω at a temperature of 35◦C.
Determine its resistance at 0oC. Take the temperature coefficient of resistance at 0oC
to be 0.0038/oC.
Qn2. A resistance element having cross sectional area of 10mm2 and a length of 10m,
takes a current of 4 A from a 220V supply at ambient temperature of 20oC. Calculate
(i) the resistivity of the material and (ii) current it will take when the temperature rises
to 60oC. Assume α20= 0.0003/oC [55.66 Ω m; 3.95A]
Qn3. The resistance of a transformer winding is 460 Ω at room temperature of 25o C.
When the transformer is running and the final temperature is reached, the resistance
of the winding increases to 520Ω. Find the average temperature rise of winding,
assuming that α20 = 1/250 per o C.
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 Practice Problem

Qn. A coil of copper wire has resistance of

90Ω at 20oC and is connected to a 230 V
supply. By how much must the voltage be
increased in order to maintain the current
constant if the temperature of the coil rises
to 60oC? Take αo for copper = 0.00428/oC.

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 Practice Question

Qn. A coil has a resistance of 18 Ω when

its mean temperature is 20oC and of 20 Ω
when its mean temperature is 50oC. Find its
mean temperature rise when its resistance is
21Ω and the surrounding temperature is
15oC

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 Practice Problems
Qn.: The resistance of the field coils of a dynamo is 173 Ω at 16oC. After working for 6 hours on full-
load, the resistance of the coils increases to 212 Ω. Calculate

(i) the temperature of the coils [72.5oC]

(ii) mean rise of temperature of the coils. Assume temperature co-efficient of resistance of copper is
0.00426/oC at 0oC.[56.5oC]

Qn.: The filament of a 60 watt, 230 V lamp has a normal working temperature of 2000oC. Find the
current flowing in the filament at the instant of switching, when the lamp is cold. Assume the
temperature of cold lamp to be 15oC and α15 = 0.005/oC. [2.85A]

Qn.: The coil of a relay takes a current of 0.12 A when it is at the room temperature of 15oC and
connected across a 60 V supply. If the minimum operating current of the relay is 0.1A, calculate the
temperature above which the relay will fail to operate when connected to the same supply. Resistance
temperature coefficient of the coil material is 0.0043/oC at 0oC.[64.5oC]
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 Resistor Colour Coding
• Large resistors such as the wire-wound resistors or the ceramic-encased power
resistors have their resistor values and tolerances printed on their cases.
• Smaller resistors, whether constructed of a molded carbon composition or a
metal film, may be too small to have their values printed on the component.
• Instead, these smaller resistors are usually covered by an epoxy or similar
insulating coating over which several colored bands are printed
• The colored bands are always read from left to right, left being defined as the
side of the resistor with the band nearest to it.

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Between what two values should a
resistor with colour coding brown-
black-brown-silver lie?

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 Letter and digit code for resistors
• Another way of indicating the value of resistors is the letter and digit code:
• Normally used on power resistors

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 DC Circuits
The closed path followed by direct current (d.c.) is called a d.c. circuit.

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 Network Terminology
• Linear circuit. A linear circuit is one whose parameters (e.g. resistances) are constant i.e. they
do not change with current or voltage.

• Non-linear circuit. A non-linear circuit is one whose parameters (e.g. resistances) change with
voltage or current.

• Bilateral circuit. A bilateral circuit is one whose properties are the same in either direction.
For example, transmission line is a bilateral circuit because it can be made to perform its
function equally well in either direction.

• Active element. An active element is one which supplies electrical energy to the circuit. Thus
batteries are active elements because they supply energy to the circuit.

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• Passive element. A passive element is one which receives electrical energy and then either
converts it into heat (resistance) or stores in an electric field (capacitance) or magnetic field
(inductance). These passive elements (i.e. resistances in this case) receive energy from the
active elements and convert it into heat.

• Node. A node of a network is an equipotential surface at which two or more circuit elements
are joined.

• Junction. A junction is that point in a network where three or more circuit elements are
joined.

• Loop. A loop is any closed path of a network in which current can flow.

• Mesh. A mesh is the most elementary form of a loop and cannot be further divided into other
loops.

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 Nodes, Branches, and Loops
• A node is a junction of
connecting wires. Branch Branch

• Every point on a node is at Node Node Node

the same potential (same
voltage). Loop
Branch

• A branch just another name Branch Mesh Mesh Branch

for any circuit element
between two nodes.

• A loop is a closed path that Node

begins and ends at the
same node. 31
Series Circuits
100Ω

30V 50Ω

I=?

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Characteristics of Series Circuits

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 Parallel Circuits

150Ω 100Ω
30V
Ohm’s Law

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 Main Features of Parallel Circuits
• The following are the characteristics of a parallel circuit :

(i) The voltage across each resistor is the same.

(ii) The current through any resistor is inversely proportional to its resistance.

(iii) The total current in the circuit is equal to the sum of currents in its parallel branches.

(iv) The reciprocal of the total resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances

(v) As the number of parallel branches is increased, the total resistance of the circuit is decreased.

(vi) The total resistance of the circuit is always less than the smallest of the resistances.

(vii) If n resistors, each of resistance R, are connected in parallel, then total resistance RP = R/n.

(viii) The conductances are additive.

(ix) The total power dissipated in the circuit is equal to the sum of powers dissipated in the individual
resistances. 35
 Advantages of Parallel Circuits
• The most useful property of a parallel circuit is the fact that potential difference has the
same value between the terminals of each branch of parallel circuit. This feature of the
parallel circuit offers the following advantages :

• (i) The appliances rated for the same voltage but different powers can be connected in
parallel without disturbing each other’s performance. Thus a 230V, 230W TV receiver
can be operated independently in parallel with a 230V, 40W lamp.

• (ii) If a break occurs in any one of the branch circuits, it will have no effect on other
branch circuits.

• Due to above advantages, electrical appliances in homes are connected in parallel. We

can switch on or off any light or appliance without affecting other lights or appliances. 36
• Qn. For the passive circuits shown below, calculate their equivalent
resistances. [2.83Ω, 10Ω]

37
 Practice
• Six resistors are connected as shown in Fig. below. If a battery having an e.m.f. of 24
volts and internal resistance of 1 Ω is connected to the terminals A and B, find (i) the
current from the battery, (ii) p.d. across 8 Ω and 4 Ω resistors and (iii) the current
taken from the battery if a conductor of negligible resistance is connected in parallel
with 8 Ω resistor.

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Solution

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40
 Practice

Two resistors R1 = 2.5kΩ and R2 = 4kΩ

are joined in series and connected to a
100V supply. The voltage drops across
R1 and R2 are measured successively by
a voltmeter having a resistance of 50kΩ.
Find the sum of two readings.

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Voltage Dividers

40Ω

10V

10Ω Vout

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Voltage Dividers

R1

VS

R2 Vout

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Voltage Dividers

R1

VS

R2 RL

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Current Dividers
RT

Iout

IS RX R1 R2

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Current Divider

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 Cells and Batteries
• A device which is used as a source of e.m.f. and which works on the principle of
conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy, is a cell.

• In practical, various cells are connected in series or parallel to obtain required

voltages. The combination of various cells, to obtain the desired voltage is called
a battery.

• Types of cells/Batteries

• Primary Cells /Batteries- dry cells e.g. Flash light battery

• Secondary Cells/Batteries- Rechargeable- e.g. automobile battery.

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• Batteries are the most common dc source.

• They are made in a variety of shapes, sizes, and ratings, from miniaturized button
batteries capable of delivering only a few microamps to large automotive batteries
capable of delivering hundreds of amps.

• Common sizes are the AAA, AA, C, and D

• All batteries use unlike conductive electrodes immersed in an electrolyte.

• Chemical interaction between the electrodes and the electrolyte creates the voltage
of the battery.

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 Types of Batteries and Their Applications
• The voltage of a battery, its service life, and other characteristics depend on the
material from which it is made.

Alkaline

• This is one of the most widely used, general-purpose primary cells available.

• Alkaline batteries are used in flashlights, portable radios, TV remote controllers,

cassette players, cameras, toys, and so on.

• They come in various sizes. Alkaline batteries provide 50% to 100% more total
energy for the same size unit than carbon-zinc cells. Their nominal cell voltage is
1.5 V 49
Carbon-Zinc

• Also called a dry cell, the carbon-zinc battery was for many years the most widely
used primary cell, but it is now giving way to other types such as the alkaline battery.

• Its nominal cell voltage is 1.5 volts.

Lithium

• Lithium batteries feature small size and long life (e.g., shelf lives of 10 to 20 years).

• Applications include watches, pacemakers, cameras, and battery backup of computer

memories.

• Several types of lithium cells are available, with voltages from of 2 V to 3.5 V and
current ratings from the microampere to the ampere range.
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Nickel-Cadmium

• Commonly called “Ni-Cads,” these are the most popular, general-purpose

rechargeable batteries available. They have long service lives, operate over wide
temperature ranges, and are manufactured in many styles and sizes, including C,
D, AAA, and AA. Inexpensive chargers make it economically feasible to use
nickel-cadmium batteries for home entertainment equipment.

Lead-Acid

• This is the familiar automotive battery. Its basic cell voltage is about 2 volts, but
typically, six cells are connected internally to provide 12 volts at its terminals.
Lead-acid batteries are capable of delivering large current (in excess of 100A) for
short periods as required, for example, to start an automobile. 51
 Battery Charging Methods
• Constant Current Method: used when the supply is
high voltage but the battery to be charged is of low
voltage.

• The number of batteries which can be charged are

connected in series across the available d.c. voltage.

• The constant current is maintained through the

batteries with the help of variable resistor connected
in series.

• The charging time required in this method is

comparatively long.
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• Constant Voltage Method: In this method, the constant voltage is applied across the
cells, connecting them in parallel. The charging current varies according to the state
of the charge of each battery.

• The batteries to be charged are connected 6 or 12 V units across the positive and
negative busbars i.e. mains supply.

• When the battery is first connected, a high charging current flows but as the terminal
voltage of the battery increases, the charging current reduces automatically.

• At the end of the full charge, the voltage of battery is equal to the voltage of the
busbars and no current flows. The charging time required is much less in this
method.
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Constant Voltage Method

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• Rectifier Method: When battery is required to be charged from a.c. supply, the rectifier
method is used. The rectifier converts a.c. supply to d.c.

• Generally bridge rectifiers is used for this purpose. The step down transformer lowers the
a.c. supply voltage as per the requirement.

• The bridge rectifier converts this low a.c. voltage to d.c. this is used to charge the battery.

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56
 Practice Question
• Thirty-five lead-acid cells, each of discharging capacity 100Ah at the 10-hour rate are to be fully
charged at constant current for 8 hours. The d.c. supply is 120V, the ampere-hour efficiency is 80%
and the e.m.f. of each cell at the beginning and end of charge is 1.9V and 2.6V, respectively.
Calculate the maximum and minimum value of the necessary resistance. Ignore internal resistance of
the cells.

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 Practice Question
• Two hundred and twenty lamps of 100 W
each are to be run on a battery supply at
110V. The cells of the battery when fully
charged have an e.m.f. of 2.1V each and
when discharged 1.83V each. If the internal
resistance per cell is 0.00015Ω, find

i. the number of cells in the battery and

ii. the number of end cells. Take the

resistance of connecting wires as 0.005Ω.

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