Quanta to Quarks

 Discuss the structure of the rutherford model of the atom, the existence of the
nucleus and electron orbits
1st alpha particle scattering experiment: Rutherford showed they slow down as
they collide with air molecules. The mica sheet placed in the beam of alpha
particle deflect them by up to 2 there must be a large electric field in mica
sheet to deflect them. 2nd alpha particle scattering experiment: This time, use
thin metal foils.
Rutherford model of an atom:
 Most of mass and +ve charge concentrated in the region 1/10000 of atom’s
radius (nucleus) with electron orbiting the nucleus. Most of the region is
empty space.
Reasons supporting Rutherford model of atom:
 Marsden observed: only 1 in 8000 alpha particles were deflected at angle 
90 must be due to encounter with a single atom, because the probability of
multiple scattering that cause this is so small
 Alpha particle penetrate to within 3  10-12 cm of centre of atom before turn
back  most of mass and +ve charge must be concentrated in the small
nucleus
 Most of alpha particles pass straight through metal foil  Most region
(between electron and nucleus) within an atom is empty space
Inadequacies
 Doesn’t explain composition of nucleus
 Doesn’t explain why –ve electrons aren’t attracted into +ve nucleus. Electrons
orbit nucleus  it’s constantly accelerating  constantly emitting
electromagnetic radiation  must be losing energy and eventually spiral into
nucleus and atom collapse. But this contradicts practical observation that: 1.
Atoms are stable 2. Elements emits line spectra, NOT continuous spectra
 Doesn’t say how electrons are arranged around nucleus

 Analyse the significance of the hydrogen spectrum in the development of Bohr’s

model of the atom
 Bohr knows that atoms produce radiation that form unique spectrum for each
element.
 He predicted a hydrogen atom has only one electron outside nucleus.
 Rutherford’s model fails to address the radius of atom or orbital frequency
of electrons. Balmer’s equation enables Bohr to apply Planck’s quantum ideas
to the atom and how electrons are arranged in hydrogen atom.
 n2  1  1 1 
 Balmer’s equation: =b  2    R H  2  2 
n 2
2
  nf ni 

 = wavelength of emitted radiation

b=364.56nm
RH = Rydberg’s constant (RH = 1.097  107m-1)

 Discuss Planck’s contribution to the concept of quantised energy

 Planck discovers the equation to solve the “ultraviolet catastrophe” problem in
blackbody radiation.
 He interpreted his result as that the “atomic oscillators” that produced the
radiation can vibrate only with certain discrete amounts of energy—quanta.
  Einstein extends this idea to the radiation itself is quantised, “quanta of light”
is later named “photons” by Gilbert Lewis.
 Define Bohr’s postulates
 He attempts to explain why electron doesn’t collapse into nucleus in
Rutherford model.
 First postulate: Electrons in an atom are in “stationary states” with stability.
Any permanent change to their motion will require a complete transition from
one stationary state to another. Electrons exist in states in which they don’t
radiate energy.
 Second postulate: As opposed to classical theory, there is actually no
radiation emitted by electrons in an atom in a stationary state. A transition
between stationary states will cause emission or absorption of electromagnetic
radiation (a photon). Frequency of photon is given by:
hf = E1-E2
E1 = initial state E2 = final state
 Third postulate (also: the quantisation condition): An electron in a stationary
state has an angular momentum (rotation equivalent of linear momentum)
h
that is an integral multiple of
2
 The theoretical equation for  of hydrogen spectrum agrees with Balmer’s
empirical equation. This strongly supports the Bohr model.

 Discuss the limitation of the Bohr model of hydrogen atom

 It’s a mixture of classical and quantum physics and based on assumption that
some classical theory works while others don’t
 It can’t be used to calculate  of spectral lines of other atoms
 Only works for atoms with one electron in the outer shell
 Doesn’t explain why some spectral line are more intense than others and why
some electron transitions are favoured over others.
 Doesn’t account for the existence of other lines such as hyperfine lines—
observed using better instruments, which must have occurred due to splitting
of energy levels, but it’s unexplained in Bohr’s model.
 Doesn’t account for the Zeeman effect (splitting of spectral lines when gas is
excited in a magnetic field)

 Describe the impact of de Broglie’s proposal that any kind of particle has both
wave and particle properties
 No one was able to perform experiment that decide whether light is wave or
particle. He thinks it’s because wave and particle properties are linked.
 De Broglie proposed: all particles have both wave and particle nature.
 This started the revolution of quantum mechanics, a complete theory
independent of classical theory. In this theory, particles have both wave and
particle properties and macroscopic rules of mechanics are not obeyed.
 The uncertainty principle and wave-particle duality are the essence of this
theory.

 Describe the confirmation of de Broglie’s proposal by Davisson and Germer

During the experiment studying surface of nickel by examining scattering
electrons, an accident occurred. Air entered the evacuated tube and nickel gets an
oxide coating. They heated it to high temperature to remove oxide coating. Due to
 annealing crystal region larger than electron beam formed and electron diffraction
were detected.  Electrons have both wave and particle nature.

 Explain the stability of electron orbits in Bohr’s atom using de Broglie’s hypothesis
 De Broglie believes the orbits of electrons in hydrogen atom are like standing
waves.
 An integral number of electron wavelength fit into circumference of electron
h
orbit (n = 2r) and de Broglie wavelength is  = , so:
mv
nh nh
 2r  mvr   This is Bohr’s third postulate. Hence the
mv 2
assumption Bohr made was the wave nature of particle and quantisation of
energy.

 Outline the application of wave characteristics of electrons in the electron

microscope
 Electron microscope has higher resolving power than optical microscope
because: 1. Resolution is limited by diffraction 2.  of electron is  light 
thus diffraction effect is smaller
 Two types of electron microscopes

Optical Microscope Transmission Scanning Electron

Electron Microscope Microscope
Incident beam From light source Electrons from Electrons from heated
heated cathode cathode
Condensing lens Compound convex Magnetic or Magnetic or
lens electrostatic lens electrostatic lens
Specimen Mounted on slide, Mounted in vacuum, Mounted in vacuum,
transparent transparent to opaque to electron
electron beam beam
Objective lens Compound convex Magnetic lens Magnetic lens
lens
Eyepiece Compound convex
lens
Projection lens Magnetic lens

Display Viewed by eye Projected onto Uses scattered

fluorescent screen electrons to modulate
cathode ray beam
Resolution Limited by  of light Limited by  of Limited by  of
(a few hundred electrons (about 0.5 electrons (about 10
nanometres) nanometres) nanometres)

 Discuss the relationships in electron microscopes between the electrons, magnetic

lenses and refraction
 While the diffraction of electron is associated with the wave properties of
electron, it is the particle properties of electron that is utilised to focus
electrons by magnetic lenses.
  Magnetic lenses focus electrons because they experience force in an electric or
magnetic field. They “refract” the beam of electrons just like in optical lenses.
Magnetic field is usually used in objective lens and projection lens. It causes
electrons to converge into a single point in the focal plane.
 Magnetic lens defects occur in electron microscope.
1. Chromatic aberration in optical lenses involves unwanted colour effects,
similar effect occur in magnetic lenses caused by the spread of velocity
entering magnetic lens thus electrons deflected by different amount  lead
to loss of resolution
2. Lack of precision in controlling the current in coils of a magnetic lens. The
focal length depends on current and variation cause loss of resolution

 Identify the importance of the conservation law to Chadwick’s discovery of the

neutron
 There’s doubt whether conservation law holds in nuclear processes
 Chadwick used conservation of momentum and conservation of energy to the
interaction of a neutral particle (similar mass to proton) with a proton. He
proves the existence of the neutron.

 Define the contents of the nucleus (protons and neutrons) as nucleons and contrast
their properties
 The nucleus consists of protons and neutrons. They are collectively called
nucleons.
 Proton and neutron have similar mass (1.672  10-27 kg and 1.675  10-27 kg)
 Proton is +ve charged (1.6  10-19 C), neutron has neutral charge

 Define the term “transmutation”

When a radioactive atom emits an alpha or beta particle, an atom of a new
element is formed. This formation of new element from parent element is
called transmutation.

 Describe Fermi’s experimental observation of nuclear fission and his

demonstration of a nuclear chain reaction
 Enrico Fermi, head of group that designed and constructed first nuclear
reactor. Aim was to see if a chain reaction can occur, which produces
plutonium as fuel for A-bomb
It contains:
 50 tonnes of natural uranium (divided into 22000 slugs) Enough mass of
fissionable material to exceed critical mass (least amount of mass required to
sustain chain reaction)
 They are dispersed throughout 400 tonnes of graphite (made into 40000 bricks
as moderator)
How it’s done:
 Neutron absorbing control rods slowly withdrawn to allow reaction to take
place, few hours later reaction becomes self-sustaining, control rods inserted
back to stop reaction

 Identify that Pauli’s suggestion of the existence of neutrino is related to the need to
account for the energy distribution of electrons emitted in -decay
 Pauli predicted the existence of a sub-atomic particle—neutrino
  All alpha particle emitted from radioactive species have same energy, but beta
particles have a range of energies. (There’s debate about whether beta particle
have continuous or line spectrum)
 Even both beta decay produce same new nucleus, they could emit different
amount of energy. Why? Because of existence of neutrinos.

 Describe nuclear transmutations due to natural radioactivity

Alpha Decay:
 Alpha particle emitted (in fact, it’s a helium nucleus, consist of 2 protons and
2 neutrons)
 Mass number A reduce by 4, atomic number Z reduce by 2
 Travel slowly, capture 2 air molecules, turn into helium gas
Beta minus Decay:
 Happen due to excess of neutron in isotopes
 Neutron decay into proton + electron + antineutrino
 Mass number same, atomic number increase by 1
Beta plus Decay:
 Happen due to excess of neutron in isotopes
 Proton changes to neutron + positron + neutrino
 Mass number same, atomic number reduce by 1
Gamma Decay:
 It’s pure energy emission by protons and neutrons in nucleus
 Gammas emitted when nucleons drop from high to low energy state
 No change to mass or atomic number

 Evaluate the relative contribution of electrostatic and gravitational forces between

nucleons
 Gravitational forces provide attractive force between, proton-proton, proton-
neutron and neutron-neutron. However, its small force makes it insignificant
compared to electrostatic repulsion
 Electrostatic force causes repulsion between pairs of protons.
 Strong nuclear force holds nucleons together.

 Account for the need of strong nuclear force and describe its properties
The gravitational attraction force is so small and insignificant compared to
electrostatic repulsion.  There must be another force in the nucleus to keep
nucleons together—strong nuclear force
1. It’s an independence of charge, similar force between proton-proton, proton-
neutron and neutron-neutron if electrostatic force is ignored
2. It’s a very strong attraction force, stronger than electrostatic repulsion between
protons (but changes to repulsion if at very short distances)
3. It’s a short-range force (10-15 m), exists only between two neighbouring
nucleons.
4. It favours binding of pairs of nucleons with opposite spins and pairs of pairs
with each pair having a total spin of zero (that’s explains the exception
stability of two protons and two neutrons in an alpha particle)

 Explain the concept of a mass defect using Einstein’s equivalence between mass
and energy
  Energy and mass are equivalent and are linked by Einstein’s relationship
E  mc 2
 Mass of nucleus  sum of mass of its constituent protons and neutrons
 The difference between mass of a nucleus and total mass of nucleons is mass
defect
 If we try to break nucleus into isolated protons and neutrons, we need to
supply energy equivalent of mass defect, because originally there’s not enough
mass to split into protons and neutrons (Mass of nucleus  sum of mass of
protons and neutrons). This is the binding energy, which is needed to separate
nucleons in a nucleus.

 Compare requirements for a controlled and uncontrolled nuclear chain reaction

 Uncontrolled chain reaction in A-bomb happen in extremely short time
 Controlled chain reaction happens in reactors. One neutron from one fission
must produce another fission to maintain reaction at a steady rate. Control rods
(Cadmium) used to absorb neutrons to prevent uncontrolled chain reaction

 Explain the basic principle of a fission reactor

Fuel rods

consist of uranium, enriched with fissionable material such as plutonium, U233
and U235

consist of slugs of enriched uranium encased in airtight aluminium casings (2
inch diameter)

inserted into holes in the moderator that is large enough to allow coolant to
circulate (holes 6-10 apart)

spent rods remove from the back
Control rods
 Made of neutron absorbing material (e.g. Cadmium, Boron)
 Can be quickly moved in and out of reactor. Raise out of reactor to speed up
reaction or put back in to slow down or stop reaction
 Used to maintain the critical level of reactor
Moderator
 Used to slow down neutrons (thermal neutron), thus higher probability of
captured by nucleus and fission.
 Control rods and fuel rods are made encased in moderator to slow neutrons
 Can be made up of Graphite, heavy water
Coolant
 Products of fission have high kinetic energy and transform into thermal
energy. Coolant absorb this thermal energy to prevent overheating of reactor
 Could be carbon dioxide
Shielding
1. Graphite to reflect neutron back into core
2. Thermal shield reflect heat back and slow down thermal neutrons
3. Pressure vessel surround core
4. Biological shield (5-10 foot thick concrete containing steel shot) to absorb
gamma ray and neutrons

 Describe some medical and industrial applications of radio-isotopes

Medical: isotopic tracing/scanning, radiation therapy (radio therapy)
 Radioisotopes carried in blood helps to find clogged artery
  Radioactive tracers concentrate in organ or tissue to allow image to be
produced
Technetium 99 (short half life of 6 hours, detects brain tumour, bone cancer)
 Radiotherapy destroys cancer cells
Cobalt-60 removes large tumours, also sterilise medical equipment
Industrial:
 Radiography to inspect defects in metal parts (e.g. Cobalt 60), more radiation
would pass through defect region
 Radioactive gauges controls thickness of materials e.g. metals, paper. It
monitors roads, explore for oil and detect explosives at airports (Americium in
smoke detectors)
Agricultural
 Use of tracers in plant nutrients (find out how much fertiliser plant is taking)
 Preserve food
 Sterilisation, control airborne disease

 Explain why neutron scattering is used as a probe by referring to the properties of

neutrons
Neutron can be used to study structure of matter
 Neutron have wave properties (diffraction),  of neutron is comparable to
spacing between atoms in molecules thus it forms diffraction/interference
pattern when scattered
 They are neutral, thus more penetrative than electrons and X-rays (deflect off
atomic electrons)
 Can study matter without destruction

 Identify the ways by which physicists continue to develop their understanding of

matter, including:
 The use of accelerator as a probe to investigate the structure of matter
They accelerate particle to high speed then smash into target atoms. The tracks
formed after collision is photographed in a cloud chamber
There are several types of particle accelerators:
 Linear accelerator
Particles pass through one cylindrical electrode and gap and accelerated by
electric field before encounter another electrode
 Synchrotrons
Particle travels in circular path with constant radius, as speed increase,
magnetic field increase to prevent increase in radius
 Cyclotrons
Particles move in circular path, as speed increases, radius of path increases and
finally deflected to hit target

 The key features and components of the standard model of matter, including quarks
and leptons
2 types of particle
Matter particles (can be stationary and have mass)
 Most matter particles are composite particles called Hadrons (made up of 2 or
3 fundamental particles—quarks) Baryons (3 quarks) Mesons (2 quarks)
 Fundamental particles include quarks and leptons. Quarks exist in groups.
Leptons include electrons and can exist alone.
  Quarks (make up hadrons) and leptons each has 6 flavours
 Quarks have up, down, charm, strange, top and bottom. They have charge of
2 1
either + or -
3 3
Force particles (Bosons)
 They carry force between matter and influence matter (e.g. change
momentum)
 Zero mass
 Has to move to exist
 Can be absorbed by matter particles
Photons (electric force) (magnetic force)
Gluons (strong nuclear force)
Weakons (weak nuclear force)
Gravitrons? (gravity force)

 All visible matter in universe are first generation quarks and leptons (up, down
and electrons)
Leptons Quarks
Generation Name Symbol Name Symbol
Electron Ve Up u
I neutrino
Electron e Down d
Muon neutrino V Charm c
II
Muon  Strange s
Tau neutrino v Top t
III
Tau  
Bottom b

 The links between high energy particle physics and cosmology

 Research in particles is intertwined with cosmology and origin of universe
 Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC) at Brookhaven made to produce
quark-gluon plasma. This may duplicate the state of matter small time after
big bang
 Research in astronomy suggests existence of dark matter (important
constituent of universe) standard model handles this well?
 Expanding universe points to “Dark energy”—matter that has repulsive
gravitational force. Standard model handles this well?