2Unit Physics - Quanta to Quark Assessment Task Charles Prestidge-King

Nuclear Reactors

The basic principles of a coal-fired power station and a nuclear fission reactor are similar in that their
function is for the end goal of electricity generation through the rotation of turbines by superheated steam.
In the case of a coal-fired power station, this steam is produced by burning large amounts of coal to heat
water travelling along wall-mounted pipes to very high temperatures. A fission reactor, on the other hand,
bombards fissionable material with neutrons which have been slowed down to ‘thermal velocities’ by
moderator material from an initial neutron source, and undergoes nuclear fission, a process in which the
nucleus of a heavy element breaks down into ‘two nuclei of roughly equal size’ ref. 53 that are more stable
than the original atom. As well as forming radioactive products, the fission process also emits several
neutrons and releases a very large amount of energy. These emitted neutrons can
induce fission in nearby nuclei of fissionable material and release more neutrons
that can repeat the sequence, causing a chain reaction in which a large number of
nuclei undergo fission and an enormous amount of energy is released. A
fundament of this process is that the mass of a nucleus is always less than the
sum of the masses of the free neutrons and protons that constitute it, the difference being the mass
equivalent of ‘the energy of formation of the nucleus from its nucleons’. ref. 25 As such, the difference
between the two masses, or mass defect, is a reflection of the binding energy of an atom. The energy
released is in line with Einstein’s equivalence of mass and energy and his assertion that “the equation E is
equal to m c-squared, in which energy is put equal to mass, multiplied by the square of the velocity of light,
showed that very small amounts of mass may be converted into a very large amount of energy and vice
versa.” – Albert Einsteinref. 60 A typical fission equation which shows the amount of energy released from
the fission process is as follows (all values are given in atomic mass units, except where marked):
235
U + 1n  139La + 95
Mo + 2( 1n ) + 7( 0e )

Total mass of reactants = 235.0439231 + 1.0086449 = 236.052568u.

Total mass of products = 138.9063482 + 94.9058415 + 2(1.0086449) + 7(0.000548580152)

= 235.8333596u.

Decrease in mass = 236.052568 - 235.8333596 = 0.2192084u.

Energy released = 0.2192084 X 931.5 = 204.193 MeV (3 d.p.)

Reactors utilise the energy released by the fission process in the form of heat, via a coolant material and a
series of heat exchangers to boil water to produce steam. Nuclear reactors can be classified as either a)
thermal reactors, where the neutrons producing the fission have energies comparable to gas particles at
normal temperatures (KE< 1eV) or b) fast reactors, where the neutrons producing the fission have far
higher energies (KE>1keV). De Broglie’s proposal of mass as wavelike gives neutrons a wavelength – a
slow, or ‘thermal’ neutron in this case has a wavelength 4 orders of magnitude above high energy
neutrons. The wavelength gives the distance a neutron can be from a nucleus for it to be able to
experience fission. The analogy of a target expanding from 1 to 13m for slow arrows is helpful here. In
either case, there are five key elements within a reactor necessary for the production of nuclear energy:
fissile fuel, moderators, coolant, control rods, and radiation shielding.

Thermal reactors are generally fuelled with enriched uranium – natural uranium that has been processed
by gaseous diffusion, a process whereby uranium ore is sprayed with fluorine to produce uranium
hexafluoride (UF6), which is then passed through filters which allow the lighter uranium-235 to travel
through faster, leading to a gas with a high concentration of U-235 in it. This gas is processed to give
pellets of uranium oxide (UO2) comprised of 3-7 % (ref. 55 reclarifying this as 3-8%) of the fissile U-235,
instead of the 0.7110%ref. 62 found in nature. In most cases, the uranium in the pellets that are then packed
into zirconium or stainless steel tube fuel rods are a mixture of fissile (U-235) and fertile (U-235) material.
These fuel rods are spaced at regular intervals in the nuclear reactor and are surrounded by moderators:
lighter elements that impede neutrons to ‘thermal’ kinetic energy levels. Moderators comprised of water,
heavy water (D2O), carbon in the form of graphite, or beryllium can be used. The control rods are used to
absorb neutrons to ensure the chain reaction does not become uncontrollable, i.e., maintained at a critical
level. These are typically made of boron or cadmium and can be moved in or out of a reactor to alter the
rate of reaction. The energy released in a fission reaction is carried away mostly as kinetic energy of the
fission products, which collide with other atoms in the vicinity, producing heat. This heat is collected by the
coolant, which can be ordinary or heavy water, high-pressure gas, or liquid sodium, as well experimental
coolants such as gallium.ref. 4 Radiation shields are also used by reactors to reflect neutrons back into the
core and protect the core walls from radiation damage; biological shields consisting of high-density
concrete are also used to protect people and the environment. Fission was first demonstrated by the
Italian physicist Enrico Fermi on the 2nd December 1942 in Chicago. The nuclear reactor or ‘atomic pile’
was built in a squash court under a grandstand at Stagg Field in Chicago. This atomic pile, containing 50
tonnes of uranium fuel, was moderated by 400 tonnes of graphite bricks. Using the same basic concepts
as are used today, a twenty-eight minute chain reaction was produced.

Impact on Society

The Manhattan Project was the codename given to the joint development of nuclear weapons (codenamed
‘Tube Alloys’)ref. 28 by the Allied countries of the United States and Britain during World War Two, in the
years 1942-1945, which culminated in the dropping of two atomic bombs on Japanese cities in 1945 in an
attempt to force them to surrender. Under pressure from Leo Szilard and Edward Teller, Albert Einstein
sent a letter to the American President Roosevelt, urging ‘"watchfulness and, if necessary, quick action" on
the part of the United States in atomic-bomb research.’ ref. 25 The initial fear of the Nazis developing such a
weapon was realised when it was found Germany had begun a similar program in 1940. Szilard’s theory of
a chain reaction was thought to be the key to producing an atomic bomb.

There were two major problems in building an atomic bomb: one was the difficulty in obtaining a large
quantity of uranium-235 that they required to build the bomb, as theorized by Bohr. ref. 26 The principle of
gaseous diffusion, as discussed in section one, was used here rather than the financially impossible
centrifuge method. Seaborg theorised that the ideal Pu-239 could be produced by allowing U-238 to
absorb a neutron by leaving it in a nuclear reactor for an extended period of time. With these two
techniques of refinement and Fermi’s demonstration of a nuclear fission reactor in December 1942, the
problem of fuel was solved. The second problem was that of reaching supercritical mass - an amount of
atomic material sufficient for an uncontrolled nuclear chain reaction. It is upon this principle of an
uncontrolled release of very high amounts of energy that an atomic bomb operates. A nuclear reactor
instead operates on a tightly controlled chain reaction, as has been seen. This is the most basic
differentiation between a nuclear reactor and a bomb; however, the details of criticality are also important.
The most general condition for the control of a nuclear chain reaction is the constant k, which is defined as
the ratio of the number of fissions produced in one neutron generation to the number of fissions in the
preceding generation. If k=1, a steady chain reaction can be maintained through the use of control rods,
moderators, and reflectors. In an atomic bomb, k >1 to achieve to supercritical mass.

In a reactor the fuel used is made up of 3-8% U-235, but an atomic bomb is made of either very highly
(90%) enriched U-235, or of Pu-239, which is highly fissile. This concentration of fissile material is used to
ensure that k > 1. In a supercritical highly-enriched bomb, 2 (rather than 1) of the 2 or 3 released neutrons
from a nuclei during fission are able to cause another fission, leading very large amounts of energy to be
released increasingly quickly – 2 to 3 billion ‘generations’ a second.

A U-235 bomb operates by holding two subcritical masses of U-235 apart at opposite ends of a tube, or
gun barrel. On detonation of the weapon, these masses are imploded together by a convention explosive
charge, TNT, so criticality is attained suddenly and the chain reaction spreads throughout the combined
supercritical mass before it again breaks into subcritical fragments. The two subcritical masses of U-235
each have hollows cut into their centres, which are lined with beryllium, a good source of neutrons. A ball
of polonium in the centre is an alpha source. These alpha particles hit the beryllium, causing a large
number of neutrons to flow, leading to the fission reaction that causes the explosion. Deuterium or tritium
(fusionable materials) can be used to intensify the explosion through a superabundance of neutrons.

The results of the project were seen with horrific consequences on August 6th, 1945 (Ref. 33 claims 6 th
and 9th, ref. 26 and 25 reaffirm this) when a bomb comprised of 89% U-235, codenamed Little Boy, was
dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. Three days later a Pu-239 bomb, codenamed Fat Man, was
dropped on Nagasaki. Japan surrendered on August 10 th, after 140000 civilians and military personnel
were killed instantly – the effects of radiation poisoning places the known death toll of the bombings as
around 350000 to dateref. 41. The Manhattan Project produced key advances in nuclear understanding that
led to the world’s use of nuclear energy for electricity production and nuclear medicine. In 1992, ‘nuclear
plants supplied 18 per cent of the USA’s electricity’ ref. 4. As well as this, countries like France are dependent
upon nuclear energy. However, ‘Memories of Chernobyl and Three Mile Island, and now the spectre of a
terrorist attack on a nuclear plant, have ensured that the general public is as wary of nuclear power as
ever.’ref. 16 In the destructive capabilities of nuclear energy, the damage done to the world by the bombings
of Hiroshima and Nagasaki is not limited to the death toll above; indeed, that is just one of the
consequences. The alternative to the dropping of atomic bombs here was an American invasion of Japan,
known as ‘Operation Olympic’, which would have resulted in an estimated ten million combined deaths.
The invasion would have been supplemented by increased conventional bombing. ‘During one
(firebombing) raid on Tokyo…over 120,000 people were killed.’ ref 59 In this light, the use of the atomic bomb
was the lesser of two evils. A protracted campaign would have also led to Soviet advance into Japan,
giving them a undesired foothold in Japan. Indeed, the project ensured mankind had the ability to destroy
itself – Mutually Assured Destruction during the Cold War and the resulting arms race cost humanity ‘the
chance to eradicate disease and hunger’.ref. 8 In its capability to both destroy and create, nuclear energy
has had a massive effect on society since WWII.

Environmental Impact

A fuel rod in a reactor lasts three years, however, only a small proportion of the uranium nuclei present
(3%) will have undergone fission when these rods are removed. Discharged fuel rods, after being stored
underwater at the reactor site, can be reprocessed – through immersion in nitric acid, workable quantities
of uranium and plutonium can be extracted from spent rods. An unfortunate by-product of both the initial
chain reaction and its reprocessing is the creation of radioactive waste, which falls into one of three
categories, depending on the amount and type of radioactivity the material radiates. Low-level waste
(LLW) is generated from hospitals, laboratories, and industry, and is made up of paper, filters, protective
clothing, medical supplies, and so on, which contain small amounts of radioactivity with short half-lives.
Low-level waste from any establishment involving ionising radiation is relatively harmless. Intermediate-
level waste (ILW) contains higher amounts of radioactivity and can require special shielding. This level
typically consists of metal cans that were used to contain fuel at a reactor, clothing or equipment that has
been highly contaminated, and sludges derived from treatment processes in nuclear power stations. In
contrast, high-level waste (HLW) may be the spent uranium fuel itself, or the principal waste from its
reprocessing – the extraction of the remaining U-235 from the waste fission products. HLW is
predominantly highly-radioactive fission products with long half-lives. The radioactivity that is emitted by
this nuclear waste is one of three basic types. Alpha decay is a ‘type of radioactive disintegration in which
some unstable atomic nuclei dissipate excess energy by spontaneously ejecting an alpha particle.’ref. 25

An alpha particle, which is identical to a helium nucleus, has a low penetrative and (accordingly) ionising
power and is generally harmless to humans. Electron-like beta decay is a group heading for three
processes of radioactive disintegration by which a nuclei in unstable elements dissipates energy,
undergoing a change of one unit of positive charge, without any change in mass number. This radiation is
released in either negative beta decay, positron emission, or electron capture. Beta has a reasonably high
penetrative power and can damage cells, but is easily blocked by a sheet of aluminium. Gamma emission
is the release of gamma rays (photons, or packets of electromagnetic energy, of extremely short
wavelength, and accordingly a very high energy) by unstable nuclei. Gamma, which is highly penetrative
and very dangerous to humans, is the prime concern in the disposal of nuclear waste. These three kinds of
radioactivity occur naturally, and the former two are the cause of transmutation, a term that refers to the
conversion of one chemical element into another. The mass defect and energy released by transmutation
can be calculated using the same method as in section 1.

The concept of a half-life refers to the time required for half of the atoms in any given quantity of a
radioactive isotope to decayref. 52, or, equivalently, the time interval required for the number of
disintegrations per second of a radioactive material to decrease by one-half.
Generally 10-20 half lives is called the hazardous life of any given nuclear waste, which leads to problems
in disposal. Low-level waste can be disposed of easily by compacting or burning it before placing it in
trenches, covered with at least a metre of soil. Intermediate-level waste may be solidified in concrete or
bitumen for disposal, and then buried in deep underground trenches. Waste with a long half-life is buried
far deeper. Three current methods of immobilising high-level wastes are, as the British plant of Sellafield
does, sealing its liquid form in stainless steel tanks which are then surrounded by concrete(nuc/rad
energy); through vitrification using borosilicate glass which is then sealed in stainless steel canisters and
buried deep underground, or by using SYNROC (Synthetic Rock), which immobilises the radioactive waste
in the crystal lattice of the stable minerals in a synthetic rock such as Synroc-C.(UIC) This immobilised
material can then stored underwater in storage ponds at reactors, or buried in remote locations at a depth
of ~500m, surrounded by a stable rock structure. In all of these methods, there must be no leakage of
radiation to contaminate both the environment and humans. The integrity of a nuclear waste dump is one
problem that disposers must deal with; half-life, as mentioned before, ensures that disposers must take
into account the 710000 year half-life of U-235. Yucca Mountain, in the United States, has been listed as a
permanent repository for HLW, however the seismic condition (its position over a faultline) of the mountain
casts doubt on this project. The radiation emitted by HLW has the capability to break molecules apart
through ionising energy, measured in Sieverts. Damage to the cells of bone marrow and the small
intestine, ‘the most easily damaged’ref. 3, will cause the production of red blood cells to cease and death is
assured in a human. The deaths of the entire fire crew fighting the blaze at Chernobyl and the subsequent
rendering of the area surrounding it as uninhabitable, and the overall capability of radiation to destroy life,
the location and safety of our nuclear waste dumps is of prime concern. Both UIC(ref. 49) and NEI(ref. 50)
are optimistic, though – both claiming the nuclear industry is the ‘only energy industry which takes
responsibility for all its wastes, and costs this into the product.’ ref. 49

ANSTO (Lucas Heights)

The Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO)’s HIFAR (High Flux Australian
Reactor) at Lucas Heights in Sydney and the National Medical Cyclotron are the primary sources for the
radioisotopes used by industry and medicine, which are created by firing beams of high-speed particles at
the nucleus of an atom.

Iodine-131 is a radioisotope that is used in medicine to treat hyperthyroidism, and is injected intravenously
after removal of the thyroid gland as a cancer treatment. i The poisonous isotope is freely absorbed by the
thyroid nodules and concentrates there rather than the rest of the body. Iodine-131 is also used in
‘diagnosis of the adrenal medullary and for imaging suspected neural crest and other endocrine
tumours.’ref. 35 The radioisotope cobalt-60 is used in engineering due to the very high energy gamma rays it
emits, which are in turn beamed at objects in order to test its thickness and integrity; the radiation that
passes through is recorded on film, with greater amounts of radiation penetrating thin patches, cracks or
flaws, which can then be easily identified and repaired. This can also be incorporated into robotic
machinery to detect and correct imperfections automatically.

The use of phosphorus-32 in agriculture is an important way of maximising the efficiency of fertilisers.
Phosphorus-32 is added to fertilisers and the amount of emitted beta radiation from this radioisotope
(which can penetrate plant tissues) is measured as the radioisotope moves around the plant, giving a
measurable rate of the speed at which the plant uptakes fertiliser. Due to its half-life of 14.3 days and its
ability to be used in very small quantities, phosphorus-32 is easy and safe to use, requiring only a simple
Geiger-Müller counter. ANSTO also has a role in neutron scattering - the process of determining the
structure and properties of matter through probing a material with thermal neutrons generated in research
reactors and observing the way the nuclei of the material’s atoms scatter them. The scattering pattern is
determined by the Compton wavelength of a neutron (1.319590898(10) × 10-15 m)ref. 47 in combination with
the structure of the material. This value is in accordance with deBroglie’s wave-particle duality proposal in
1923, forming diffraction patterns such as measurable interference fringes. X-rays, as used by the Braggs,
are the most common method of investigating matter, but neutrons have an advantage over x-rays in
several ways: one, in their neutral charge, allowing them to penetrate deeply into matter without being
deflected by Coulomb’s force of electrostatic repulsion; two, in that they have naturally magnetic
movement, which allows the close study of magnetic structures and materials which has led to the
development of magnetic storage devices such as computer hard drives; three, in that they have a
vibrational energy similar to the vibrational energy of atoms in the lattice in solids and liquids, allowing
neutrons to be used to study this atomic motion; four, in that their wavelength is comparable to the atomic
spacing of atoms in a lattice; five, that they radiate at a far lower energy than x-rays, allowing for the study
of materials without destruction or cellular damage; and six, in that they scatter well from protons, making
them ideal in determining the structure of materials containing hydrogen bonds. This includes all organic
molecules in living things as well as inorganic substances such as hydrocarbons.

The HIFAR reactor at Lucas Heights is due for replacement by the Replacement Research Reactor (RRR),
which is set for completion in 2005. The issues of contention surrounding this project are those of
economic feasibility, safety, the production of radioisotopes, and the need for coal-fired power stations to
be replaced. The RRR, which will cost more than $600 million ref. 36 with the Dept. of Finance giving it at
$532 millionref. 39 - enough money to build 125 new primary schools. The Probabilistic Safety Assessment
conducted on the (HIFAR) reactor in 1993 rated it “well within international safety standards". ref. 38

Given this level of safety, it hardly seems necessary to build a new reactor, however the security of HIFAR
was thrown into doubt when three teams of Greenpeace protestors scaled the reactor in December 2001.
In our current climate of fear of a terrorist attack, especially against a nuclear reactor, the lax security at
HIFAR is one reason for the RRR to be built, as it has a metal grilling around the building it is housed in
that is proofed against aircraft crashes up to a Cessna 500. ‘The open pool concept and the negative
reactivity feedback coefficients of the core’ ref. 38 mean that the RRR is inherently safer than the HIFAR.

20% of all Australia’s radioisotopes are produced in cyclotrons, devices that produce a fraction of the
waste a reactor does. This number, Greenpeace claims, can be greatly increased. Australia could also
import radioisotopes. In my opinion, the RRR should be built on the grounds of increased safety and the
necessity of continued research in nuclear physics, but it should remain a research reactor only. Despite
the damaging levels of CO2 produced by a coal-fired power station, the reactor should investigate cleaner
ways of providing nuclear energy rather than provide this energy itself.
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http://www.me.utexas.edu/~uer/manhattan/debates.html
http://www.me.utexas.edu/~uer/manhattan/conclusions.html
http://www.me.utexas.edu/~uer/manhattan/bomb-design.html
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28 - www.nuclearfiles.org/redocuments/ 1943/430819-quebec.html

29 - http://webs.mn.catholic.edu.au/physics/emery/hsc_quanta_quarks.htm

30 - http://webs.mn.catholic.edu.au/physics/emery/hsc_quanta_continued.htm

31 - http://www.world-nuclear.org/education/intro.htm

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http://www.ansto.gov.au/ansto/bragg/hifar/nreflect.html
http://www.ansto.gov.au/ansto/bragg/hifar/nshifar.html
http://www.ansto.gov.au/ansto/bragg/index.html
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http://www.arpansa.gov.au/rrrp_siting.htm
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37 - http://www.canberra.edu.au/uc/lectures/mantech/manpol/sem972/unit4207/Lucas_Heights_
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38 - http://www.enn.com/news/2004-02-19/s_13273.asp

39 - http://www.greenpeace.org.au/nuclear/whatawaste/, includes:
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http://www.greenpeace.org.au/nuclear/whatawaste/alternatives_toplevel.html
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40 - http://www.greens.org.au/mediacentre/mediareleases/johnkaye/1207

41 - http://www.isreview.org/issues/13/Hiroshima-Nagasaki.shtml

42 - http://www.neutron.anl.gov/

43 - http://www.serve.com/nukeresister/nr126/126lucas.html

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45 - http://www.aip.org/history/einstein/voice1.htm

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47 - http://www.tcaep.co.uk/science/constant/detail/neutroncomptonwavelengthhmsubnsubc.htm

48 - http://www.sns.gov/aboutsns/source.htm

49 - http://www.uic.com.au/wast.htm

50 - http://www.nei.org/index.asp?catnum=2&catid=62

51 - http://www.nirs.org/factsheets/hlwfcst.htm

52 - http://www.lbl.gov/abc/Basic.html

53 - http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Chem-History/Meitner-Fission-1939.html(two of roughly equal

size, etc)

54 - http://www.atomicarchive.com/, includes:
http://www.atomicarchive.com/index.shtml
http://www.atomicarchive.com/Fusion/Fusion1.shtml
55 - http://www.chem.duke.edu/~jds/cruise_chem/nuclear/agriculture.html

56 - http://web1.caryacademy.org/chemistry/rushin/StudentProjects/ElementWebSites/iodine/uses.html
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58 - http://atom.kaeri.re.kr/

59 - http://www.saskschools.ca/curr_content/history20/unit3/sec2_09.html

60 - http://www.aip.org/history/einstein/voice1.htm

61 - http://www.madsci.org/posts/archives/may2001/988836248.Ph.r.html

62 - http://pearl1.lanl.gov/periodic/elements/92.html
i
In conversation with Dr. Peter Doran on 07-07-04, as well as HSC Excel Physics