CHEMISTRY

The Central Science

Chapter 3
Stoichiometry: Calculations with
Chemical Formulas and Equations
 Stoichiometry and Chemical Equations

Chemical reactions: involve largely the outer (valence) electrons

of an atom.
Chemical reactions rearrange the atoms to form new substances.
Antoine Lavoisier (1743 ~ 1794)

1789 “… nothing is created: an equal quantity of

matter exists both before and after the
experiment.”

Dalton’s atomic theory:

-law of conservation of mass (law of
conservation of atom) atoms are neither
created or destroyed.
 Chemical Equations

Chemical equations are descriptions of chemical reactions.

There are two parts to an equation: reactants and products:

H2 + O2  H2O Unbalanced!!

NB:
The numbers of each type of atom must be the same
on the left and the right side of the equation. The
equation must be balanced.
Stoichiometric coefficients: numbers in front of the
chemical formulas; give ratio of reactants and
products.
 Balancing Chemical Equations

Determine the coefficients for each substance so that equal

numbers of each type of atom exist on each side of the equation.

To balance:
 change only the stoichiometric coefficients in front of the formula.
i. e., changes the amount of the substance.
 cannot change the subscripts; this changes the
chemical species. i. e., identity of the substance.

Thus the equation

H2 + O2  H2O2
is a balanced equation but for a different reaction.
 Chemical Equations

For the reaction : H2 + O2  H2O

We could have: H2 + 1/2 O2  H2O or

✓ 2H2 + O2  2H2O or

4H2 + 2O2  4H2O, etc.

These are all OK, but:

 preferably, no fractions are used...

 smallest possible coefficients used…
View of reaction at the molecular level:
4 H’s and 2 O’s 4 H’s and 2 O’s
Before reaction after reaction

O
H
H O ‘produces’ H
H +
H H
O
O H

two hydrogen one oxygen two water

molecules molecule molecules
Example:
Write a balanced equation for the following reactions.
Ca3P2 + H2O → Ca(OH)2+ PH3
Al + HCl → AlCl3+ H2
Solution

Ca3P2 + H2O → 3 Ca(OH)2 + PH3

Ca3P2 + H2O → 3 Ca(OH)2 + 2 PH3
Ca3P2 + 6 H2O → 3 Ca(OH)2 + 2 PH3

Ca3P2 + 6 H2O → 3 Ca(OH)2 + 2 PH3

Balanced Equation
Solution

Al + HCl → AlCl3 + H2
Al + 3 HCl → AlCl3 + H2

Lowest common multiple of 2 and 3 is 6.

Al + 6 HCl → AlCl3 + 3 H2
Al + 6 HCl → 2 AlCl3 + 3 H2

2 Al + 6 HCl → 2 AlCl3 + 3 H2

2 Al + 6 HCl → 2 AlCl3 + 3 H2
Balanced Equation
Example:
Write a balanced equation for the combustion of purine, C5H4N4
Solution
C, H, O  CO2, H2O
In combustion reactions: N  N2
S  SO2

C5 H4 N4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O + N2

C5 H4 N4 + O2 → 5 CO2 + H2O + 2 N2

C5 H4 N4 + O2 → 5 CO2 + 2 H2O + 2 N2

C5 H4 N4 + 6 O2 → 5 CO2 + 2 H2O + 2 N2

C5 H4 N4 + 6 O2 → 5 CO2 + 2 H2O + 2 N2
 Chemical Reactivity: Types of Reaction

Combination Reactions

Two or more reactants combine to form a single product

2Mg(s) + O2(g)  2MgO(s)

metal + oxygen  metal oxide
NOTE: Physical state
(s) - solid,
(l) - liquid,
(g) - gas,
(aq) – aqueous (Homogeneous Solution)

Combination reactions have fewer products than reactants.

 Metal

Product: Ionic Compound

Mg2+ - magnesium cation
O2- - oxide anion

Nonmetal
Additional Combination Reactions

 non metal + hydrogen  hydride

C(s) + 2H2(g)  CH4(g) molecular

 metal + halogen  metal halide

Ca(s) + Cl2(g)  CaCl2(s) ionic

2Li(s) + F2(g)  2LiF(s) ionic
 Decomposition Reactions
A reactant decomposes to form two or more products

2NaN3 (s)  2Na (s) + 3N2 (g)

metal azide  metal + nitrogen
(the reaction that occurs in an air bag in a motor car)

Additional Examples:
 Metal carbonates + Heat  Metal oxide + Carbon dioxide.
PbCO3(s) → PbO(s) + CO2(g)
 Metal chlorates + Heat  Metal chloride + Oxygen
2KClO3(s) → 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)

Decomposition reactions have fewer reactants than products.

 Combustion reaction.
Compound of carbon
and hydrogen
Combustion (burning, oxidation) of hydrocarbons produces
CO2 and H2O.

CxHy + O2  CO2 + H2O

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
 Oxygen-containing Derivatives of Hydrocarbons

 Sugars + O2(g)  CO2(g) + H2O(g)

“Oxidation reactions” occur at body temperature to provide energy

C6H12O6(s) + 6 O2(g)  6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(g)

glucose

 Alcohols + O2(g)  CO2(g) + H2O(g)

C2H5OH(l) + 3 O2(g)  2 CO2(g) + 3 H2O(g)
Ethanol
 Calculations Using Chemical Formulae
Terminology
 Formula weight (FW) or Fr : is the sum of the
atomic weights (Ar) of all the atoms in the
Na+ chemical formula.
Cl-
FW (NaCl) = 1Ar(Na) + 1Ar(Cl)
= 22.99 + 35.45
= 58.44 amu

(NaCl)
Ionic Compound  FW Al(OH)3 = 1Ar(Al) + 3Ar(O) + 3Ar(H)
Sodium cation Na+
= 1(26.98) + 3(16.00) + 3(1.008)
Chloride anion Cl-
= 78.00 amu
Empirical Formula
Molecular and Formula Weights
Linear structure of glucose

Chemical formula C6H12O6

Molecular formula

 Molecular weight (MW): is the formula weight

of a molecular compound.
i.e., the chemical formula is also the molecular
formula

MW (C6H12O6) = 6(12.01) + 12(1.008) + 6(16.00)

= 180.16 amu
 Percentage Composition
Accessing purity requires the calculation of the percentage
composition of a compound.

i.e., the mass of each element in the compound expressed

as a percentage.

Percent composition is the total atomic weight for each

element divided by the formula weight of the compound
expressed as a percentage:

 No. of atoms of Element    A r 

% Element  100
Fr of Compound
FW
Example:
Calculate the percentage oxygen, nitrogen and Ca (by mass) of Calcium Nitrate.

Solution
Calcium cation (group 2) – Ca2+
Nitrate anion – NO3- Ca(NO3)2 Ionic Compound

FW of Ca(NO3)2 = 40.08 amu + (2 x 14.01 amu) + (6 x 16.00 amu)

= 164.10 amu

(2 x 14.01 amu)
%N= x 100 % = 17.08 %
164.10 amu
(6 x 16.00 amu)
%O= x 100 % = 58.50 %
164.10 amu
40.08 amu
% Ca = x 100 % = 24.42 %
164.10 amu
Example:
Calculate the percentage oxygen, nitrogen and carbon (by mass) of Vanillin.

Solution H3CO H

C C O Molecular Compound
HO C C C Molecular Formula
C C H C8H8O3
H H
Vanillin

MW of C8H8O3 = (8 x 12.01 amu) + (8 x 1.008 amu) + (3 x 16.00 amu)

= 152.14 amu

(8 x 12.01 amu)
%C= x 100 % = 63.15 %
152.14 amu
(3 x 16.00 amu)
%O= x 100 % = 31.55 %
152.14 amu
(8 x 1.008 amu)
%H= x 100 % = 5.300 %
152.14 amu
 The Mole : Chemistry’s counting number
 Due to the small size of the atom, everyday samples contain an
almost infinitely large number of atoms or molecules.
 Chemists count atoms or molecules by weighing them out.
 The counting unit is called the mole (mol).

Definition:
A mole is the amount of matter that contains
as many objects (atoms, molecules, ions, …)
as the number of atoms in exactly 12g of
isotopically pure 12C.

Avogadro’s number

NA = 6.0221421 × 1023 mol-1

•Lorenzo Romano Amadeo Carlo Avogadro,
conte di Quaregna e di Cerreto
(1776 - 1856) A very large number
By definition:
Atomic mass of 12C = 12.0000 amu
Avogadro
Now express this in grams:
12.0000 g of 12C contains

12.00 g
24 1
12 1.6605 10 g atom

because 1 C = 12 amu = 12 x 1.6605 x 10-24 g

= 6.022 x 1023 atoms

12 g 12C = 1 mol of 12C atoms = 6.022 x 1023 atoms

“A Short History of Nearly Everything” – Bill Bryson

… equivalent to the number of popcorn kernels

required to cover the United States to a depth of
9 miles.

Mole (convenient measure chemical quantities)

1 mole of any entity = 6.022  1023 units of that entity

1 mol of 12C contains 6.022 x 1023 12C atoms.
1 mol of C2H4 contains 6.022 x 1023 C2H4 molecules.
1 mol of glucose contains 6.022 x 1023 glucose molecules.
 Interconverting Moles and No. of Particles

Strategy
mol

Moles Number of
(Amount) Particles

Avogadro’s
number

mol-1
 Example:
How many oxygen atoms are in 0.25 mol of Ca(NO3)2?
Conversion:
1 mol of Ca(NO3)2 = O -
1 mol of Ca2+ cations. 1 mol
N O
2 × 1 mol of (NO3)- anions
2 × 1 mol of N atoms. O -
O
6 × 1 mol of O atoms.
N O
Ca2+

0.25 mol Ca(NO3)2 x 6.022 × 1023 Ca(NO3)2 units = 1.5 × 1023 Ca(NO3)2 units
1 mol Ca(NO3)2

1.5 × 1023 Ca(NO3)2 units x 6 mol O-atoms = 9.0 × 1023 O-atoms

1 Ca(NO3)2 units
Example:

Calculate the number of H atoms in 0.350 moles of C6H12O6.

Conversion: 1 mole = 6.022 x 1023 molecules

1 molecule = 12 H-atoms

0.35 mol x 6.022 x 1023 molecules x 12 H-atoms =

1 mole 1 molecule

= 25.3 x 1023

= 2.53 x 1024 H-atoms

 Molar Mass
Molar mass: mass in grams of 1 mole of substance (units g.mol-1).
The Molar mass (gmol-1) is always numerically equal to the formula
weight (amu) for any substance.
Example:
Calculate the molar mass of Vanillin.
1 mol of N2 28.04 g

Molar mass C8H8O3

= (8 x 12.01) + (8 x 1.008) + (3 x 16.00)
= 152.14 g mol-1

Calculate the molar mass of Calcium Nitrate.

1 mol of H2O 18.0 g

Molar mass Ca(NO3)2

= 40.08 + (2 x 14.01) + (6 x 16.00)
= 164.10 g mol-1
1 mol of NaCl 58.45 g
p. 93
 Interconverting Mass, Moles and No. of Particles

Strategy
g mol

Mass Moles Number of

(Quantity) (Amount) Particles

Molar mass Avogadro’s

number

g mol-1 mol-1
Example:
Calculate:
a) The number of moles of Calcium Nitrate in 41.03 g of Calcium Nitrate.

Molar mass Ca(NO3)2

= 40.08 + (2 x 14.01) + (6 x 16.00)
= 164.10 g mol-1

41.03 g x 1 mol Ca(NO3)2 = 0.2500 mol Ca(NO3)2

164.10 g

b) The number of oxygen atoms in 41.03 g of Calcium Nitrate.

0.25 mol Ca(NO3)2 x 6 mol O-atoms x 6.022 × 1023 O-atoms

1 mol Ca(NO3)2 1mol O-atoms

= 9.034 × 1023 O-atoms

 Empirical Formulas from Analyses

 New compounds are analysed to determine their

elemental composition.
 These are expressed as percentages.
 Start with mass % of elements (i.e. experimental data)
and calculate a formula.

Strategy
Assume Grams of
Mass % Mols of each
have 100 g each element
of elements element
sample in sample

Calculate
Empirical formula
Mole Ratio
 Molecular Formulae from Empirical Formulae

 Percentage compositions always afford the empirical

formula.

 Subscripts in the molecular formula are always a multiple

of the subscripts of the empirical formula.

Multiple = Molecular Weight

Empirical weight
Example:
A compound is found to have by mass 38.7% C, 9.7% H and 51.6% O.
The experimentally determined molecular weight (Mass Spectrometry) is
62.1 amu. What are the empirical and molecular formulae for this
compound?

C = 38.7 g × 1 mol = 3.222 mol × 1 = 1

12.01 g 3.222 mol

H = 9.7 g × 1 mol = 9.62 mol × 1 = 2.98 ~ 3

1.008 g 3.222 mol

O = 51.6 g × 1 mol = 3.225 mol × 1 = 1

16.00 g 3.222 mol

∴ Empirical Formula = C H3 O
 ∴ Empirical Formula = C H3 O
Empirical formula weight C H3 O
= (12.01) + (3 x 1.008) + (16.00)
= 31.04 amu
Multiple = Molecular Weight = 62.1 amu = 2.00
Empirical weight 31.04 amu

Molecular Formula = 2 × Empirical Formula

∴ Molecular Formula = C2 H6 O2

Compound is ethylene glycol HOCH2CH2OH

 Quantitative Information from Balanced Equations

Example
What mass of CO2 is produced when 1.00 g of propane, C3H8, is burned?

C3H8 + O2 → CO2 + H2O

Balanced equation

 C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O

1molecule 5 molecules 3 molecules 4 molecules

1mole 5 moles 3 moles 4 moles

6.022×1023 5 × 6.022×1023 3 × 6.022×1023 4 × 6.022×1023
molecules molecules molecules molecules
STRATEGY
 Molar mass
Mass of C3H8 Moles C3H8
(Quantity) (Amount)
g g mol-1
mol

Molar mass C3H8 = (3 x 12.01) + (8 x 1.008) = 44.09 g mol-1

1.00g C3H8 x 1 mol C3H8 = 0.02268 mol C3H8 = 2.268 ×10-2 mol C3H8
44.09 g C3H8

Stoichiometric Coefficients
Moles of C3H8 Moles CO2
(Amount) (Amount)
mol Balanced chemical Equation !!!!!! mol

C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 +

4H2O
Stoichiometric ratio: 1 : 3
For every mole of C3H8 reacted : 3 mole of CO2 is produced
 C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 +
4H2O ratio:
Stoichiometric 1 : 3
For every mole of C3H8 reacted : 3 mole of CO2 is produced

 Moles CO2 = 2.268 x 10-2 × 3 = 6.804 × 10-2 mol-1

Molar mass
Moles CO2 Mass of CO2
(Amount) (Quantity)
mol g mol-1 g

Molar mass CO2 = (12.01) + (2 x 16.00) = 44.01 g mol-1

3 × 2.268 ×10-2 mol CO2 x 44.01 g CO2 = 2.994 g CO2

1 mol CO2
= 2.99 g CO2
Example

The fermentation of glucose C6 H12 O6 produces ethyl alcohol and carbon

dioxide:

a) How many moles of CO2 are produced when 0.400mol of C6H12O6 reacts
in this fashion?
b) How many grams of C6H12O6 are needed to form 7.50g of ethyl alcohol?
c) How many grams of CO2 form when 7.50g of ethyl alcohol are produced?
Solution
Balanced equation
a)
C6H12O6(aq) → 2 C2H5OH(aq) + 2 CO2(g)
1mole 2 moles 2 moles

Stoichiometric ratio: 1 : 2
For every mole of C6H12O6 reacted : 2 mole of CO2 is produced

0.400 mol C6H12O6 x 2 mol CO2 = 0.800 mol CO2

mol C6H12O6
b) How many grams of C6H12O6 are needed to form 7.50g of ethyl alcohol?

C6H12O6(aq) → 2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2

Stoichiometric ratio: 1 : 2
For every mole of C6H12O6 reacted : 2 mole of C2H5OH is produced

Molar mass
Mass of Moles
C2H5OH C2H5OH
g g mol-1
mol
①

Stoichiometry
②
Molar mass
Mass of Moles of
C6H12O6 C6H12O6
g mol-1 mol
g
③
Molar mass C6H12O6 = (6 x 12.01) + (12 x 1.008) + (6 ×16.00) = 180.2 g mol-1

Molar mass C2H5OH = (2 x 12.01) + (6 x 1.008) + (16.00) = 46.07 g mol-1

① ② ③
7.50g C2H5OH x 1 mol C2H5OH × mol C6H12O6 × 180.2g C6H12O6
46.07g C2H5OH 2 mol C2H5OH mol C6H12O6

= 14.7g C6H12O6

c) How many grams of CO2 form when 7.50g of ethyl alcohol are produced?

C6H12O6(aq) → 2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2

Stoichiometric ratio: 2 : 2 ≡ 1:1
For every mole of C2H5OH produced : 1 mole of CO2 is produced

Molar mass CO2 = (12.01) + (2 ×16.00) = 44.01 g mol-1

Molar mass C2H5OH = (2 x 12.01) + (6 x 1.008) + (16.00) = 46.07 g mol-1
 Molar mass
Mass of Moles
C2H5OH C2H5OH
g g mol-1
mol
①

Stoichiometry
②
Molar mass
Mass of Moles of
CO2 CO2
g mol-1 mol
g
③

① ② ③
7.50g C2H5OH x 1 mol C2H5OH × mol CO2 × 44.01g CO2
46.07g C2H5OH mol C2H5OH mol CO2

= 7.17 g CO2
Example
What mass of CO2 is produced when 1.00 g of octane is burned?

2 C8H18 + 25 O2 → 16 CO2 + 18 H2O

Molar mass
Mass of C8H18 Moles C8H18
(Quantity) (Amount)
g g mol-1
mol

Molar mass C8H18 = (8 x 12.01) + (18 x 1.008) = 114.22 g mol-1

1.00g C8H18 x 1 mol C8H18 = 0.008755 mol C8H18 = 8.755 ×10-3 mol C8H18
114.22 g C8H18

Stoichiometric Coefficients
Moles of C8H18 Moles CO2
(Amount) (Amount)
mol Balanced chemical Equation !!!!!! mol
 2 C8H18 + 25 O2 → 16 CO2 + 18 H2O

Stoichiometric ratio: 2 : 16
For every mole of 2 C8H18 reacted : 16 mole of CO2 is produced

 Moles CO2 = 8.755 x 10-3 mol C8H18 × 16 mol CO2 = 7.004 × 10-2 mol-1
2 mol C8H18

Molar mass
Moles CO2 Mass of CO2
(Amount) (Quantity)
mol g mol-1 g

Molar mass CO2 = (12.01) + (2 x 16.00) = 44.01 g mol-1

7.004 ×10-2 mol CO2 x 44.01 g CO2 = 3.082 g CO2

1 mol CO2
= 3.08 g CO2
 Limiting Reactants
 If reactants are not present in stoichiometric amounts, at
the end of the reaction some reactants are still present.
 These reactants are said to be in excess.
 The reactant consumed completely in the reaction is
called the Limiting Reactant/Reagent.

Consider:

2 H2(g) + 1 O2(g) → 2 H2O(l)

Suppose we have 10 mol H2

and 7 mol O2????
Unreacted O2 left over; H2 was the limiting reagent

2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
Initial quantities : 10 mol 7 mol 0 mol
Changes : 10 mol 5 mol 10 mol
Final quantities : 0 mol 2 mol 10 mol
Strategy

Mass mols Identify limiting Mols of product based

reactants reactants reagent on limiting reagent

Mass of product
Example

A strip of zinc metal having a mass of 2.00g is placed in an aqueous solution

containing 2.50g of silver nitrate, causing the following reaction to occur:

Zn(s) + 2 AgNO3(aq) → 2 Ag(s) + Zn(NO3)2(aq)

a) Which reactant is limiting?
b) How many grams of Ag will form?
c) How many grams of Zn(NO3)2 will form?
d) How many grams of the excess reactant will be left at the end of the
reaction?
 Solution Zn(s) + 2 AgNO3(aq) → 2 Ag(s) +
a) Zn(NO
Which 3)2(aq)
reactant is limiting?
2.00g Zn x 1 mol Zn = 3.06 x 10-2 mol Zn
65.39g Zn
2.50g AgNO3 x 1 mol AgNO3 = 1.47 x 10-2 mol AgNO3
169.9 g AgNO3

Stoichiometric ratio: 1 : 2
For every mole of Zn reacted : 2 mole of AgNO3 reacts

Assume Zn is the limiting reactant : (Zn is totally consumed)

Amount of AgNO3 to be consumed = 3.06 x 10-2 mol x 2 = 6.12 x 10-2 mol

1.47 x 10-2 mol < 6.12 x 10-2 mol

(…we do not have required amount of AgNO3)

AgNO3 is therefore the limiting reagent

 b) How many grams of Ag will form?
Stoichiometric ratio: 2 : 2
For every mole of Ag formed : 1 mole of AgNO3 reacts

Stoichiometry
Moles of Moles
Limiting Reactant Ag
mol ② mol

①
Molar mass
Mass
Ag ③ g mol-1
g

2.50g AgNO3 x 1 mol AgNO3 x 1 mol Ag x 107.9 g Ag

= 1.587 g Ag
169.9 g AgNO3 1 mol AgNO3 mol Ag
= 1.59 g Ag
 c) How many grams of Zn(NO3)2 will form?
Stoichiometric ratio: 2 : 1
2 mole of AgNO3 reacts : 1 mole of Zn(NO3)2 formed

Stoichiometry
Moles of Moles
Limiting Reactant Zn(NO3)2
mol ② mol

①
Molar mass
Mass
Zn(NO3)2 ③ g mol-1
g

2.50g AgNO3 x 1 mol AgNO3 x 1 mol Zn(NO3)2 x 189.4g Zn(NO3)2

169.9 g AgNO3 2 mol AgNO3 1 mol Zn(NO3)2
= 1.39 g Zn(NO3)2
 d) How many grams of the excess reactant will be left at the end of
the reaction?
AgNO3 is the limiting reagent and is totally reacted.
Excess Zn will remain unreacted.

Stoichiometric ratio: 1 : 2
For every mole of Zn reacted : 2 mole of AgNO3 reacts

Zn consumed:
2.50g AgNO3 x 1 mol AgNO3 x 1 mol Zn = 7.35 ×10-3 mol Zn
169.9 g AgNO3 2 mol AgNO3

Zn unreacted:
3.06 ×10-2 - 7.35 ×10-3 = 2.33 ×10-2 mol Zn

2.33 x 10-2 mol Zn x 65.39g Zn = 1.52g Zn

1 mol Zn
 Expressing Yields of Chemical Reactions.

Theoretical / Expected Yield: Calculated quantity of product formed

when all of the limiting reactant has reacted.

Actual Yield: Quantity of product obtained in a chemical reaction.

(Experimental data)
>
Actual yield ≤ Theoretical yield

Percent Yield : Ratio of the actual and theoretical yield expressed

as a percentage.

actual yield
Percent Yield  100 %
theoretica l yield
In part ‘b’ of the previous example we calculated that 1.59 g of
Ag(s) should form when 2.00 g of Zn(s) and 2.50 g of AgNO3(aq)
are reacted.

The calculated 1.59 g of Ag to be formed is the

theoretical yield. (relative to Ag)

If experimentally 1.38 g of Ag is obtained:

 Actual Yield = 1.38 g Ag
 Percent yield = Actual yield x 100 %
Theoretical yield
= 1.38 g x 100 %
1.59 g
= 86.8 % yield
 End of Chapter 3:
Stoichiometry: Calculations with Chemical Formulas and Equations