TOPIC 3

Stoichiometry and
Solution Concentration
 Topic Scopes

• Molarity, molality, parts per million &

percentage (w/w, w/v and v/v)
• Stoichiometry calculation
• Limiting reactant
• Theoretical yield, actual yield and
percentage yield

2
 Mole Concept

No. of Moles = Mass (g)

molar mass (g/mol)

No. of Moles = Molarity (mol/L)  volume (L)

• 1 mole contains 1 Avogadro’s number

(6.022 x 1023) 3
 Molarity (M)
• Molarity (molar concentration) is the
number of moles of a solute that is
contained in 1 liter of solution

Molarity (M) = Amount of solute (Mol)

Volume of solution (L)

4
 Example: Saline Water
Concentration
Typical seawaters contain sodium chloride,
NaCl, as much as 2.7 g per 100 mL.
(Molar mass of Na = 22.990 g/mol; Cl = 35.453
g/mol; Mg = 24.305 g/mol)
(a) What is the molarity of NaCl in the saline
water?
(b) The MgCl2 content of the saline water is
0.054 M. Determine the weight (grams)
of MgCl2 in 50 mL of the saline water? 5
Solution:
(a) Molar mass of NaCl
= (22.990 + 35.453) g mol-1
= 58.443 g mol-1

Moles of NaCl in 100 mL of saline water

= 2.7g /(58.443 g mol-1) = 0.046 mol

 Molarity of saline water = Mol/L

= 0.046 mol /(100/1000)L = 0.46 M
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Solution:
(b) Molar mass of MgCl2
= [24.305 + 2(35.453)] g mol-1
= 95.211 g mol-1

Moles of MgCl2 = Molarity (M) x volume of

solution (V)

Weight of MgCl2 in 50 mL of saline water

= (M x V) x MW
= 0.054 mol L-1 x (50/1000)L x 95.211g mol-1
= 0.257 g 7
 Molality (m)
• Molality is the number of moles of solute
per kilogram (1000 g) of solvent

Molality (m) = Amount of solute (Mol)

Mass of solvent (kg)

8
 Percent Composition
(Concentration In Percentage)

(g)
(g)

(ml)
(ml)

(g)
(ml) 9
 Example:
A solution contains 118.5 g KI per liter of
solution. Calculate the concentration in (a)
% w/v & (b) % w/w. Given the density of the
solution at 25C is 1.078 g mL-1

Solution:
(a) % w/v = 118.5 g x 100%
1000 mL
= 11.85 % w/v
10
Solution:
(b) % w/w = 118.5 g x 1 mL x 100%
1000 mL 1.078 g
= 10.99 % w/w

11
 Units of Low Concentration
• Parts per million, (ppm) is grams of solute
per million grams of total solution/ mixture
• ppm = mass of solute (g)
x 106
mass of sample(g)

Unit of ppm: w/w = µg/g or mg/kg

w/v = µg/mL or mg/L
v/v = nL/mL or µL/L
12
 Units of Low Concentration
• Parts per billion, (ppb) is grams of solute
per billion grams of total solution/ mixture
• ppb = mass of solute (g)
x 109
mass of sample(g)

Unit of ppb: w/w = ng/g or µg/kg

w/v = ng/mL or µg/L
v/v = nL/L
13
 Conversion of ppm to molarity
An aqueous solution contains 56 ppm SO2. Calculate
the molarity of the solution. (Molar mass of S =
32.065 g mol-1; O = 15.999 g mol-1)

Solution:
Molar mass of SO2= [32.065+2(15.999)] g mol-1 =
64.063 g mol-1
56 ppm  56 mg/L
56 mg 1g 1 mol
M  
1L 1000 mg 64.063 g
 8.74 10  4 M 14
 Stoichiometry
• The relationship
between the
quantities of
chemical reactants
and products
• Depends on the
principle of the
conservation of
matter
15
Reaction of Phosphorus with Cl2
Cl2

P4 PCl3

Notice the stoichiometric coefficients and the

physical states of the reactants and products
16
 Chemical Equations
• Depict the kind of reactants and products and
their relative amounts in a reaction
reactants products
4 Al(s) + 3 O2(g)  2 Al2O3(s)

stoichiometric coefficients
• (s),(g),(l) – physical states of compounds
• (s) – solid, (g) – gas, (l) – liquid
(aq) – aqueous solution 17
 Law of The
Conservation of Matter
• States that matter can be
neither created nor
destroyed
• An equation must be
balanced
• It must have the same
number of atoms of the
same kind on both sides
of the equation
Lavoisier, 1788
18
 Law of The
Conservation of Matter
12 Cl atoms 12 Cl atoms

• P4(s) + 6 Cl2(g) 4 PCl3(l)

4 P atoms 4 P atoms
• Total mass of reactants is 10g, must end
up with 10g of products if the reaction
completely converts reactants to products
19
 Balanced Chemical Equation
• Unbalanced equation:
NH3(g) + O2(g)  NO(g) + H2O(g)

Balanced equation:
2 NH3(g) + 5/2 O2(g)  2 NO(g) + 3 H2O(g)
Fraction
OR

x each coefficient on both sides by 2:

4 NH3(g) + 5 O2(g)  4 NO(g) + 6 H2O(g)
20
 Theoretical Yield
• The calculated maximum quantity of
product can be obtained form a chemical
reaction / given quantities of reactants

Actual Yield
• The quantity of product that is actually
obtained in laboratory / a chemical plant
• Actual yield < theoretical yield

21
? Actual Yield < Theoretical Yield
• Loss of product often occurs during
isolation & purification steps
• Some reactions do not react completely to
products of central interest (side
reactions) but give > than 1 set of
products (unintended products / by-
products)
• If a reverse reaction occurs, some of the
expected product may react to reform the
reactants
22
 Percentage (%) Yield
Percentage = actual yield x 100%
Yield (%) theoretical yield

PROBLEM:
If 454 g of NH4NO3 decomposes, how much N2O
and H2O are formed? What is the theoretical
yield of products?

Given molar mass:

NH4NO3 = 80.04 g/mol, H2O = 18.02 g/mol,
N2O = 44.02 g/mol 23
STEP 1:
Write the balanced chemical equation
NH4NO3  N2O + 2 H2O

454 g of NH4NO3  N2O + 2 H2O

STEP 2:
Convert mass reactant of NH4NO3 (454 g) 
moles
Moles of NH4NO3 :

24
 454 g of NH4NO3  N2O + 2 H2O

STEP 3:
• Convert moles reactant  moles product
• 1 mol NH4NO3  2 mol H2O
• Express this relation as the
STOICHIOMETRIC FACTOR
2 mol H2 O produced
1 mol NH4NO3 used

25
 454 g of NH4NO3  N2O + 2 H2O

STEP 4:
Convert moles reactant (5.68 mol)  moles
product
Moles of H2O 2 mol H2O
Moles of NH4NO3 = 1 mol NH4NO3
 Moles of H2O

= 11.3444 mol H2O produced 26

 Theoretical Yield
STEP 5:
Convert moles product (11.3444 mol) 
mass product

Called the THEORETICAL YIELD

Mass of H2O:

ALWAYS FOLLOW THESE STEPS IN

SOLVING STOICHIOMETRY PROBLEMS! 27
 454 g of NH4NO3  N2O + 2 H2O

STEP 6:
• How much N2O is formed?
• Total mass of reactants = total mass of
products
• 454 g NH4NO3 = ___ g N2O + 204.426 g H2O
• Mass of N2O = 249.574 g
(Theoretical Yield)
28
 Percentage (%) Yield
454 g of NH4NO3  N2O + 2 H2O

• If you isolated only 131 g of N2O, what is

the percent yield?
• This compares the theoretical (249.574 g)
and actual (131 g) yields.
actual yield
% yield = • 100%
theoretical yield

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 GENERAL PLAN FOR
STOICHIOMETRY
CALCULATIONS
Mass Mass
Reactant (A) Product (B)

x (1 mol A/g A) x (g B/mol B)

Stoichiometric
Moles factor Moles
reactant product
x (y mol product B)
(x mol reactant A) 30
PROBLEM:
Using 5.00 g of H2O2, what mass of O2 and
of H2O can be obtained? (Molar mass of
H2O2 = 34.02 g/mol; H2O = 18.02 g/mol)
• 2 H2O2(l)  2 H2O(g) + O2(g)
• Reaction is catalyzed by MnO2
• Step 1: moles of H2O2
• Step 2: use STOICHIOMETRIC FACTOR
to calculate moles of O2
• Step 3: mass of O2
31
 Reactions Involving a
LIMITING REACTANT
• The reagent that is completely used up &
it LIMITS the quantity of products formed
in a reaction

32
Reactants Products
PROBLEM:
Mix 5.40 g of Al with 8.10 g of Cl2.
What mass of Al2Cl6 can form?

Molar mass:
Al = 27.00 g/mol, Cl = 35.45 g/mol

STEP 1:
Write the balanced chemical equation
2 Al + 3 Cl2  Al2Cl6
33
Step 2: Calculate moles of each reactant
Moles calculation based on limiting reactant

We have 5.40 g of Al and 8.10 g of Cl2 ,

Mole of Al = 5.40 g = 0.200 mol Al
27.00 g/mol

Mole of Cl2 = 8.10 g = 0.114 mol Cl2

70.90 g/mol

34
 Step 3: Determine limiting reactant
Compare actual mole ratio of reactants to
theoretical mole ratio

2 Al + 3 Cl2  Al2Cl6

• Reactants must be in the mole ratio:

mol Cl2 3 Theoretical
= mole ratio
mol Al 2
35
Deciding on the Limiting Reactant
2 Al + 3 Cl2  Al2Cl6
• If mol Cl2 3
>
mol Al 2
• There is not enough Al to use up all the Cl2
 Limiting reactant = Al

• If mol Cl2 3
<
mol Al 2
• There is not enough Cl2 to use up all the Al
 Limiting reactant = Cl2 36
Step 4: Find mole ratio of reactants

Actual mol Cl 0.114 mol 3

Mole
2
= = 0.57 
mol Al 0.200 mol 2
Ratio:
This
mol Cl2 3
= should be 3/2 or 1.5 if
mol Al 2
reactants are present in the
exact stoichiometric ratio

Limiting reactant is Cl2

37
PROBLEM: Mix 5.40 g of Al with 8.10 g of Cl2.
What mass of Al2Cl6 can form?

2 Al + 3 Cl2  Al2Cl6
Limiting reactant = Cl2
All calculations are based on Cl2

mass mass
Cl2 Al2Cl6
1 mol Al2Cl6
3 mol Cl2
moles moles
Cl2 Al2Cl6 38
Calculation of mass of Al2Cl6 expected

Step 1: Calculate mole of Al2Cl6 expected

based on limiting reactant

Mole of Al2Cl6 1 mol Al2Cl6

=
Mole of Cl2 3 mol Cl2

Mole of Al2Cl6=
1 mol Al2Cl6
0.114 mol Cl2 • = 0.0380 mol Al2Cl6
3 mol Cl2
39
Step 2: Calculate mass of Al2Cl6 expected
based on limiting reactant

Mass of Al2Cl6
= Mole of Al2Cl6 x molar mass of Al2Cl6

Mass of Al2Cl6=

40
Problem:
How much of which reactant will remain
when reaction is complete?

• Cl2 was the limiting reactant.

Therefore, Al was present in
excess. But how much?
• First find how much Al was required.
• Then find how much Al is in excess.

41
 Calculating Excess Al
2 Al + 3 Cl2 products

0.200 mol 0.114 mol = LR

2 mol Al
0.114 mol Cl2 • = 0.0760 mol Al required
3 mol Cl2

Excess Al = Al available - Al required

= 0.200 mol - 0.0760 mol
= 0.124 mol Al in excess (convert to mass)
42
Chemical Analysis

43
 Chemical Analysis
• An impure sample of the mineral
thenardite contains Na2SO4.
• Mass of mineral sample = 0.123 g
• The Na2SO4 in the sample is converted to
insoluble BaSO4
• The mass of BaSO4 = 0.177 g
• What is the mass percent of Na2SO4 in the
mineral?
Given molar mass:
44
BaSO4 = 233.4 g/mol, Na2SO4 = 142.0 g/mol
Na2SO4(aq) + BaCl2(aq)  2 NaCl(aq) + BaSO4(s)

• Mole of BaSO4
= 0.177 g BaSO4 /(233.4 g mol-1)
= 7.58 x 10-4 mol
• Using stoichiometric factor,
Moles of Na2SO4 1 mol Na2SO4
-4 =
7.58 x 10 mol BaSO4 1 mol BaSO4
• Moles of Na2SO4 = 7.58 x 10-4 mol
45
Na2SO4(aq) + BaCl2(aq)  2 NaCl(aq) + BaSO4(s)

• Mass of Na2SO4
= 7.58 x 10-4 mol Na2SO4 (142.0 g/mol)
= 0.108 g Na2SO4

• Mass percent of Na2SO4 in the mineral,

= (0.108 g Na2SO4/0.123 g sample)100%
= 87.8% Na2SO4
46
 Using Stoichiometry to
Determine a Formula
Problem:
Burn 0.115 g of a hydrocarbon, CxHy and
produce 0.379 g of CO2 and 0.1035 g of
H2O.
CxHy + O2  0.379 g CO2 + 0.1035 g H2O
What is the empirical formula of CxHy?
Given molar mass:
CO2 = 44.01 g/mol, H2O = 18.02 g/mol 47
CxHy + O2  0.379 g CO2 + 0.1035 g H2O

First, recognize that all C in CO2 and all H in

H2O is from CxHy.
1. Calculate amount of C in CO2
8.61 x 10-3 mol CO2  8.61 x 10-3 mol C
2. Calculate amount of H in H2O
5.744 x 10-3 mol H2O 1.149 x 10-2 mol H

48
CxHy + O2  0.379 g CO2 + 0.1035 g H2O

Now find ratio of [mol H : mol C] to find

values of x and y in CxHy.
Mole ratio [ mol H : mol C]
= 1.149 x 10 -2 mol H : 8.61 x 10-3 mol C
= 1.33 mol H : 1.00 mol C
= 4 mol H : 3 mol C
Empirical formula = C3H4
49
 Learning Outcomes
 Apply principles governing properties of
chemical compounds, chemical bonds and
stoichiometry.
 Demonstrate laboratory skills by
conducting and analysing the results of
physical chemistry experiments.

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