General Chemistry

M. R. Naimi-Jamal

Faculty of Chemistry
Iran University of Science & Technology
 ‫فصل چهارم‪:‬‬

‫استوکیومتری‪II‬‬
‫و معادالت شیمیائی‬
 Contents

4-1 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations

4-2 Chemical Equations and Stoichiometry
4-3 Chemical Reactions in Solution
4-4 Determining the Limiting reagent
 4-1 Chemical Reactions and
Chemical Equations

As reactants are converted to products,

we observe:
– Color change
– Precipitate formation
– Gas evolution
– Heat absorption or evolution

Chemical evidence may be necessary.

Formation of AlBr3
 Chemical Reaction

Nitrogen monoxide + oxygen → nitrogen dioxide

Step 1: Write the reaction using chemical symbols.

Step 2: Balance the chemical equation.

2 NO + 1 O2 → 2 NO2
Molecular Representation
 Balancing Equations
Example:
Nitrogen monoxide + oxygen → nitrogen dioxide

• Never introduce extraneous atoms to balance.

NO + O2 → NO2 + O
• Never change a formula for the purpose of balancing an
equation.

NO + O2 → NO3
 Balancing Equation Strategy

• Balance elements that occur in only one

compound on each side first.
• Balance free elements last.
• Balance unchanged polyatomics as groups.
• Fractional coefficients are acceptable and
can be cleared at the end by multiplication.
 Chemical Equations

• The physical states:

– Solid (s)
– liquid (l)
– gas (g)
– and aqueous (aq)

P4 (s) + 6Cl2 (g) 4PCl3 (l)

4-2 Chemical Equations and Stoichiometry

• Stoichiometry includes all the quantitative

relationships involving:
– atomic and formula masses
– chemical formulas.
– The coefficients in front of the compounds in a balanced
equation are called stoichiometric coefficients

• Mole ratio is a central conversion

factor.
 Mass Relationships

P4 + 6 Cl2 4 PCl3
Initial amount 1.00 mol (124 g) 6.00 mol (425 g) 0 mol (0 g)
(mol)
Change in - 1.00 mol -6.00 mol +4.00 mol
amount (mol)
After complete 0 mol (0 g) 0 mol (0 g) 4.00 mol (549 g)
reaction (mol)

From this we can calculate mass of one compound

required to complete the reaction if the mass of the
other compound is given
Example 4-3
Relating the Numbers of Moles of Reactant and Product.
How many moles of H2O are produced by burning 2.72
mol H2 in an excess of O2?

Write the Chemical Equation:

Balance the Chemical Equation:

2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2O

Use the stoichiometric factor or mole ratio in an equation:

nH2O = 2.72 mol H2 × 2 mol H2O = 2.72 mol H2O

2 mol H2
Example 4-6
Additional Conversion Factors in a Stoichiometric
Calculation: Volume, Density, and Percent Composition.
An alloy used in aircraft structures consists of 93.7% Al
and 6.3% Cu by mass. The alloy has a density of 2.85
g/cm3. A 0.691 cm3 piece of the alloy reacts with an
excess of HCl(aq). If we assume that all the Al but none
of the Cu reacts with HCl(aq), what is the mass of H2
obtained?
Example 4-6
Write the Chemical Equation:
Balance the Chemical Equation:

2 Al + 6 HCl → 2 AlCl3 + 3 H2
Example 4-6
2 Al + 6 HCl → 2 AlCl3 + 3 H2

Plan the strategy:

cm3 alloy → g alloy → g Al → mole Al → mol H2 → g H2

We need 5 conversion factors!
Write the Equation and Calculate:

mH2 = 0.691 cm3 alloy × 2.85 g alloy × 97.3 g Al ×

1 cm3 100 g alloy

1 mol Al × 3 mol H2 × 2.016 g H2 = 0.207 g H

26.98 g Al 2 mol Al 1 mol H2 2
 Combustion Reactions

• Combustion reaction – burning of a substance.

Substance combines with oxygen to form
carbon dioxide and water

• C8H18 (l) + O2(g) CO2(g) + H2O (l)

 Balancing Combustion Reactions

1. Write correct formulas for the reactants

and products
2. Balance the carbon atoms
3. Balance the hydrogen atoms
4. Balance the oxygen atoms
5. Verify that the number of atoms of each
element is balanced
Example 4-2
Writing and Balancing an Equation: The Combustion of a
Carbon-Hydrogen-Oxygen Compound.
Liquid triethylene glycol, C6H14O4, is used a a solvent and
plasticizer for vinyl and polyurethane plastics. Write a
balanced chemical equation for its complete combustion.
Example 4-2

Chemical Equation:

C6H14O4 + 15 O2 → 6 CO2 + 7 H2O

2
1. Balance C.
2. Balance H.
3. Balance O. 4. Multiply by two
2 C6H14O4 + 15 O2 → 12 CO2 + 14 H2O

and check all elements.

 Yields

• Theoretical yield – the maximum amount of

product that can be formed from a chemical
reaction
• Actual yield – the amount of product that is
formed in the laboratory
 ‫بازده واکنش‬

‫‪.‬میزان مطلوبیت یک واکنش معموال با بازده آن گزارش می شود‬

‫مقدار عملی‬
‫= درصد بازده واکنش‬ ‫‪x‬‬ ‫‪100‬‬
‫مقدار نظری‬
 ‫بازده واکنش‬
‫مثال‪:‬‬
‫تیتانیم فلزی قوی‪ ،‬سبک وزن و مقاوم در برابر خوردگی‬
‫است که از آن برای صنایع هواپیما و دوچرخه سازی‬
‫استفاده می شود‪ .‬تیتانیم در واکنش تیتانیم کلرید با‬
‫منیزیم مذاب بین ‪ C 950‬تا ‪ C 1150‬به دست می آید‪.‬‬
‫)‪TiCl4(g) + 2 Mg(l‬‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫)‪Ti(s) + 2 MgCl2(l‬‬

‫در یک فرآیند صنعتی ‪ 3.54x107 g‬از نمک تیتانیم کلرید با مقدار‬

‫اضافی منیزیم وارد واکنش شده است‪.‬‬
‫الف) تولید تیتانیم چند گرم است؟‬
‫ب) اگر در عمل ‪ 7.91x106 g‬تیتانیم تولید شده باشد‪ ،‬درصد‬
‫بازده را حساب کنید‪.‬‬
 ‫الف‬:

1 mol TiCl 4  1 mol Ti  ‫ب‬:

no.molTi  1.87  105 
gTi  1.87  105  47.9  8.96  106

5
7.91  10
%R   100  %88.3
8.96  105
 Theoretical, Actual and Percent Yield

• When actual yield = % 100, then the reaction

is said to be quantitative.
• Side reactions reduce the percent yield.
• By-products are formed by side reactions.
 Limiting Reagents
• The goal of chemical reactions is to produce the
highest amount of product possible
– So, one reagent will probably be in excess
– This allows for the complete reaction of one
reagent, even though some others remain
unreacted
(NH4)2PtCl4(s) + 2 NH3(aq) 2 NH4Cl(aq) + Pt(NH3)2Cl2(s)
$100/g $0.01/g
All of the expensive reagent is used up, leaving the cheap
unreacted ammonia
 ‫عامل محدود کننده‬

‫• عام?ل محدود کننده آ?ن ماده ای اس?ت ک?ه به‬

‫تمام?ی مص?رف شده و درپایان واکنش چیزی‬
‫از آ?ن باق?ی نماند‪ .‬و آ?ن محدود کننده تولی?د یا‬
‫مصرف بقیه مواد واکنش است‪.‬‬
‫• در ح?ل مس?ئله ابتدا بای?د عامل محدود کننده‬
‫مشخ?ص شود ت?ا بقی?ه مواد نس?بت ب?ه آن‬
‫سنجیده شوند‪.‬‬
 ‫‪4NH3‬‬

‫‪4N2‬‬ ‫‪6H2‬‬ ‫‪2N2‬‬

‫عامل محدود کننده کدام است؟‬

 ‫عامل محدود کننده‬

‫• در واکن?ش بی?ن ‪ 73‬گرم کلریدری?ک اسید و‬

‫‪ 80‬گرم س?ود چ?ه مقدار نم?ک ایجاد می‬
‫شود؟‬

‫• در واکن?ش بی?ن ‪ 98‬گرم س?ولفوریک اسید و‬

‫‪ 160‬گرم سود چقدر نمک ایجاد می شود؟‬
 ‫مثال‬

‫محلول س?ولفوریک اس?ید و س?رب اس?تات واکنش داده و‬

‫سرب سولفات جامد و استیک اسید محلول می دهند‪.‬‬
‫اگ?ر ‪ 15.0‬گرم از هری?ک از مواد اولی?ه باهم مخلوط‬
‫شوند‪ ،‬حساب کنید چند گرم سرب سولفات تولید می‬
‫شود‪ .‬همچنی?ن حس?اب کنی?د پ?س از انجام واکن?ش چند‬
‫گرم ماده اضافی باقی می ماند؟‬
‫‪H2SO4 + Pb(CH3COO)2‬‬ ‫‪ PbSO4 + 2 CH3COOH‬‬
 :‫حل‬
1 mol H 2SO 4
15.0 g H 2SO 4 
98.1 g
1 mol PbSO 4 303.3 g
   46.4 g PbSO 4
1 mol H 2SO 4 1 mol PbSO 4
1 mol Pb(CH 3COO) 2
15.0 g Pb(CH 3COO) 2 
325.3 g
1 mol PbSO 4 303.3 g
   14.0 g PbSO 4
1 mol Pb(CH 3COO) 2 1 mol PbSO 4
Pb(CH 3COO) 2 limiting reactant
 14.0 g PbSO 4
 1 mol Pb(CH3COO) 2
15.0 g Pb(CH3COO) 2 
325.3 g
1 mol H 2SO 4 98.1 g
   4.52 g H 2SO 4
1 mol Pb(CH3COO) 2 1 mol H 2SO 4

4.52 g of H 2SO 4 is used

15.0 g - 4.52 g  10.5 g of H 2SO 4 is excess.
Limiting Reagent
 Chemical Equations & Chemical Analysis

• Analytical chemists try to identify substances

in a mixture, and try to measure the quantities
of the components.
• Mostly it is done with instrumental methods
• It is essential to use chemical reactions and
stoichiometry
 Quantitative Analysis of a Mixture
• Usually depends on one of the two following ideas. Idea
1:
– A substance, present in unknown amount, can be allowed to
react with a known quantity of another substance. If the
stoichiometric ratio for their reaction is known, the unknown can
be determined.

CH3CO2H(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCH3CO2(aq) + H2O(l)

Know the amount of NaOH so we can determine the amount of
acetic acid
 Quantitative Analysis of a Mixture
Idea 2
– A material of unknown composition can be
converted to one or more substances of known
composition. Those substances can be
identified, their amounts determined, and these
amounts related to the amount of the original,
unknown substance.
C7H5NO3S + X convert to SO42- Na2SO4 + other
Na2SO4(aq) + BaCl2(aq) BaSO4(s) + 2 NaCl(aq)
1 mol Na2SO4 1 mol S 1 mol SO42- 1 mol BaSO4
 Chemical Reactions in Solution

• Close contact between atoms, ions and molecules

necessary for a reaction to occur.

• Solvent
– We will usually use aqueous (aq) solution.

• Solute
– A material dissolved by the solvent.
 ‫‪Chemical Reactions in Solution‬‬

‫بسیاری از واکنشها در محلول انجام می شود‪.‬‬ ‫•‬

‫محاسبات استوکیومتری برای این گونه واکنشها‬ ‫•‬
‫بر مبنای حجم های محلول های به کار رفته و‬
‫غلظت این محلول ها است‪.‬‬
‫غلظت یک محلول ‪ ،‬مقدار ماده حل شده در‬ ‫•‬
‫مقدار معینی حالل ‪ ،‬یا مقدار ماده حل شده‬
‫مو?جود در مقدار معینی از محلو?ل است‪.‬‬
‫چند روش برای بیان غلظت وجود دارد‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
 Molarity

# Mole of solute       
Molarity (M) =
Volume of solution (L)

If 0.444 mol of urea is dissolved in enough water to make

1.000 L of solution the concentration is:

0.444 mol urea

curea = = 0.444 M CO(NH2)2
1.000 L
 ‫موالریته ‪M -‬‬

‫• توجه داشته باشید که تعریف موالریته بر مبنای‬

‫یک لیتر محلول است ‪ ،‬و نه بر مبنای یک لیتر‬
‫حالل ‪.‬‬

‫یک محلول ‪ M 1.0‬شامل ‪ 1.0‬مول ماده حل شده در ‪L 1‬‬ ‫•‬

‫محلول است ‪.‬‬
‫یک محلول ‪ M 1.5‬شامل ‪ 1.5‬مول ماده حل شده در‪L 1‬‬ ‫•‬
‫محلول است‪.‬‬
‫یک محلول ‪ M 3.0‬شامل‪ 3.0‬مول ماده حل شده در‪L 1‬‬ ‫•‬
‫محلول است‪.‬‬
 ‫موالریته –‪( M‬ادامه)‬
‫موالریته ‪M -‬‬

‫• برای یک محلول ‪: M 3.0‬‬

‫• ‪ ،mL 1000‬شامل ‪ 3.0‬مول ماده حل شده است‪.‬‬
‫• ‪ ، mL 500‬شامل ‪ 1.5‬مول ماده حل شده است‪.‬‬
‫• ‪ ،mL 2000‬شامل ‪ 6.0‬مول ماده حل شده است‪.‬‬

‫• درهرسه نمونه غلظت ‪ M 3.0‬است‪.‬‬

 Preparation of a Solution

Weigh the solid sample.

Dissolve it in a volumetric flask partially filled with solvent.
Carefully fill to the mark.
Example 4-6
Calculating the mass of solute in a solution of known molarity.
We want to prepare exactly 0.2500 L (250 mL) of an 0.250 M
K2CrO4 (MW=194.02) solution in water. What mass of
K2CrO4 should we use?

Plan strategy: Volume → moles → mass

We need 2 conversion factors!
Write equation and calculate:

mK CrO = 0.2500 L × 0.250 mol× 194.02 g= 12.1 g

2 4 1.00 L 1.00 mol
 Solution Dilution
Mi × V i
Mf × Vf

n
M=
V

Mi × Vi = ni = nf = Mf × Vf

Mi × Vi Vi
Mf = = Mi
Vf Vf
Example 4-10
Preparing a solution by dilution.
A particular analytical chemistry procedure requires 0.0100 M
K2CrO4. What volume of 0.250 M K2CrO4 should we use to
prepare 0.250 L of 0.0100 M K2CrO4?

Vi Mf
Plan strategy: M f = Mi Vi = Vf
Vf Mi

Calculate:

VK CrO = 0.2500 L × 0.0100 mol× 1.000 L = 0.0100 L

2 4 1.00 L 0.250 mol
Solution formation by Dilution
 Oxidation States

Metals tend to Non-metals tend to

lose electrons. gain electrons.
Na Na+ + e- Cl + e- Cl-

We use the Oxidation State to keep track of the number of

electrons that have been gained or lost by an element.
 Rules for Oxidation States
1. The oxidation state (OS) of an individual atom in a free
element is 0.

2. The total of the OS in all atoms in:

i. Neutral species is 0.
ii. Ionic species is equal to the charge on the ion.

3. In their compounds, the alkali metals and the alkaline earths

have OS of +1 and +2 respectively.

4. In compounds the OS of fluorine (F) is always –1

 Rules for Oxidation States

6. In compounds, the OS of hydrogen (H) is usually +1

7. In compounds, the OS of oxygen (O) is usually –2.

8. In binary (two-element) compounds with metals:

i. Halogens have OS of –1,
ii. Group 6A have OS of –2 and
iii. Group 5A have OS of –3.
Example:
Assigning Oxidation States.
What is the oxidation state of the underlined element in each
of the following? a) P4; b) Al2O3; c) MnO4-; d) NaH

a) P4 is an element. P OS = 0
b) Al2O3: O is –2. O3 is –6. Since (+6)/2=(+3), Al OS = +3.
c) MnO4-: net OS = -1, O4 is –8. Mn OS = +7.
d) NaH: net OS = 0, rule 3 beats rule 5, Na OS = +1 and
H OS = -1.
 Naming Compounds

Trivial names are used for common compounds.

A systematic method of naming compounds is

known as a system of nomenclature.

Inorganic compounds
Organic compounds
 Inorganic Nomenclature
Binary Compounds of Metals and Nonmetals: first the
name of the metal, then of the non-metal

NaCl = sodium chloride

electrically neutral name is unchanged + “ide” ending

MgI2 = magnesium iodide

Al2O3 = aluminum oxide
Na2S = sodium sulfide
Binary Compounds of Two Non-metals
Molecular compounds
usually write the positive OS element first.
HCl hydrogen chloride

Some pairs form more than one compound

mono 1 penta 5
di 2 hexa 6
tri 3 hepta 7
tetra 4 octa 8
 Binary Acids

Acids produce H+ when dissolved in water.

They are compounds that ionize in water.

Emphasize the fact that a molecule is an acid by altering the

name.
HCl hydrogen chloride hydrochloric acid
HF hydrogen fluoride hydrofluoric acid
 Polyatomic Ions

Polyatomic ions are very common.

The following table gives a list of some of them. Here are a few:

ammonium ion NH4+ acetate ion C2H3O2-

carbonate ion CO32- hydrogen carbonate HCO3-
hypochlorite ClO- phosphate PO43-
chlorite ClO2- hydrogen phosphate HPO42-
chlorate ClO3- sulfate SO42-
perchlorate ClO4- hydrogensulfate HSO4-
 Electrolytes

• Some solutes can

dissociate into ions.
• Electric charge can be
carried.
 Types of Electrolytes

• Strong electrolyte dissociates

completely.
– Good electrical conduction.
• Weak electrolyte partially dissociates.
– Fair conductor of electricity.
• Non-electrolyte does not dissociate.
– Poor conductor of electricity.
 Representation of Electrolytes using
Chemical Equations

A strong electrolyte:
MgCl2(s) → Mg2+(aq) + 2 Cl-(aq)
A weak electrolyte:

→CH3CO2-(aq) + H+(aq)
CH3CO2H(aq) ←
A non-electrolyte:
CH3OH(aq)
 Notation for Concentration

MgCl2(s) → Mg2+(aq) + 2 Cl-(aq)

In 0.0050 M MgCl2:

Stoichiometry is important.

[Mg2+] = 0.0050 M [Cl-] = 0.0100 M [MgCl2] = 0 M

 Example:
Calculating Ion concentrations in a Solution of a Strong
Electolyte.
What are the aluminum and sulfate ion concentrations in
0.0165 M Al2(SO4)3?.

Balanced Chemical Equation:

Al2(SO4)3 (s) → 2 Al3+(aq) + 3 SO42-(aq)

 Example:

Aluminum Concentration:

0.0165 mol Al2(SO4)3 2 mol Al3+

[Al] = × = 0.0330 M Al3+
1L 1 mol Al2(SO4)3

Sulfate Concentration:

0.0165 mol Al2(SO4)3 3 mol SO42-

[SO4 ] =
2-
× = 0.0495 M SO42-
1L 1 mol Al2(SO4)3
 Precipitation Reactions

• Soluble ions can combine to form an insoluble

compound.
• Precipitation occurs.

Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s)

 Net Ionic Equation

Overall Precipitation Reaction:

AgNO3(aq) +NaI (aq) → AgI(s) + NaNO3(aq)

Complete ionic equation:

Spectator ions
Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + Na+(aq) + I-(aq) →
AgI(s) + Na+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
Net ionic equation:
Ag+(aq) + I-(aq) → AgI(s)
 Solubility Rules

Compounds that are soluble:

– Alkali metal ion and ammonium ion salts
Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+ NH4+

– Nitrates, perchlorates and acetates

NO3- ClO4- CH3CO2-

 Solubility Rules

•Compounds that are mostly soluble:

– Chlorides, bromides and iodides Cl-, Br-, I-
• Except those of Pb2+, Ag+, and Hg22+.
– Sulfates SO42-
• Except those of Sr2+, Ba2+, Pb2+ and Hg22+.
• Ca(SO4) is slightly soluble.
 Solubility Rules

•Compounds that are insoluble:

–Hydroxides and sulfides HO-, S2-
Except alkali metal and ammonium salts
Sulfides of alkaline earths are soluble
Hydroxides of Sr2+ and Ca2+ are slightly soluble.

–Carbonates and phosphates CO32-, PO43-

Except alkali metal and ammonium salts