SIG FIGS, ERROR, VOLUMETRIC PIPET  Parts per billion

o
 Accuracy: data points fall close to what we
expect/what they should be
 Precision: data points fall close to one another
o Systematic errors are not accurate, but
are precise
o Random errors are accurate, but not
precise
 Volumetric equipment includes those that are
manufactured to guarantee that the volume of
liquid measured is reproducible to few tenths of
a percent
 Absolute error: same unit as measured value,
same number of decimal places as first doubtful
digit in measured value
 % relative error: ratio of absolute error to
measured value
 Volumetric glassware precise to TWO DECIMAL
PLACES (10 mL vol. pipet  10.00 mL)
 Inherent error: error that comes from limited
precision of equipment used
 Relative average deviation (RAD): statistical
analysis of data used to determine precision of
data set
o If %RAD < inherent error  data is
precise
n
m of solute (μ g) m of solute ( μ g)
pp b= ≈
1 kg solution 1 L solution
 Serial dilution: process for making successive
dilutions of solutions of known concentrations
o Aliquot (fixed known volume) of
solution 1 is diluted to specific larger
volume to make solution 2
o Repeated dilutions lead to small
concentrations that couldn’t be prepared
directly
o Error in concentration of each solution
increases with number of dilutions
o Use volumetric glassware
 Beer’s Law principles
o Absorption spectrum of compound is its
physical property; color of light absorbed
is the complementary color of light
transmitted
o Amount of light absorbed by colored
solution is proportional to concentration
of absorbing species in solution and
path length traveled through solution
o A=εLC
 ε = molar absorption coefficient,
intrinsic property of chemical
species
 Absorbance falls between 0.1 to
1.0

∑ |x i−x|
o i=1 , x = average
n
%RAD=
x

CONCENTRATIONS, BEER’S LAW, DILUTION

 Weight percent ASPIRIN SYNTHESIS + PURIFICATION

o For dilute aqueous solutions, assume
1 g ≅ 1mL
o
w weight of solute ( g ) w
%≈ ×100= %
w volume of solution ( mL ) v
 Molarity
mole of solute(mol )
o M=
volume of solution ( L)
 Parts per million  Theoretical yield: max weight of product
o recovered based on moles of limiting reagent
mof solute (mg) mof solute(mg) and stoichiometry of reaction
ppm= ≈
1 kg solution 1 L solution
  Experimental percent yield:
actual weight of product obtained
× 100
theoretical yield
 Crystallization: process of formation of solid
crystals precipitating from solution
o Solid-liquid separation technique
 Most compounds more soluble in hot solvent
than cold solvent
o Cooling can reverse process
o Want to dissolve product in minimum of
suitable hot solvent to minimize loss of
product in cooled solution
 Recrystallization
o Let solution cool slowly
o Filter product
o Choose good crystallization solution so
that it is:
 Soluble for large quantity of
product at high temp
 Insoluble for product at low
temp
 Soluble for impurities at all
temps
 Not reactive with product
 Supersaturated solution: solution that contains
more than max amount of solute that is capable
of being dissolved at given temp

TITRATION + MELTING POINT

BUFFERS

KINETICS + RATE LAWS