Digester Module 1

DIGESTER
Rapid Revision Notes
MODULE - 1
YOUR GATEWAY TO SUCCESS
GPAT DISCUSSION CENTER

GPAT | NIPER | DRUG INSPECTOR | PHARMACIST
Contents
Sl. UNITS PAGES
1. PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY 1-12

(DIGESTER NO. - 1 TO 18)
2. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 13-34

3. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 35-46

4. MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY 47-106

5. PHARMACEUTICAL ANALYSIS 107-143

DIGESTER : PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY DIGESTER
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
DIGESTER -1
TYPE OF SOLUTIONS
SOLUTE SOLVENT TYPES OF SOLUTION EXAMPLES

SOLID SOLUTIONS
Solid Solid Solid in Solid All alloys like brass, bronze, an
alloy of copper and gold, etc.
Liquid Solid Liquid in solid Amalgam of mercury with Na,
CuSO4.5H2O, FeSO4.7H2O
Gas Solid Gas in solid Solution of H2 in Pd, dissolved
gases in minerals.
LIQUID SOLUTIONS
Solid Liquid Solid in liquid Sugar solution, salt solution, I2 in
CCl4.
Liquid Liquid Liquid in liquid Benzene in toluene, alcohol in
water.
Gas Liquid Gas in liquid CO2 in water, NH3 in water, etc.
GASEOUS SOLUTIONS
Solid Gas Solid in gas Iodine vapours in air, camphor
vapours in N2
Liquid Gas Liquid in gas Water vapours in air, CHCl3
vapours in N2.
Gas Gas Gas in gas Air (O2 + N2)
DIGESTER -2
EXPRESSING CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
NAME SYMBOL FORMULA DEFINITION

Mass Amount of solute in
Mass of solute
percentage %(w/W) ×100 grams present in 100 g
Total mass of solution
of solution.
Mass by Mass of solute Amount of solute in
volume %(w/V) ×10 0 grams dissolved in 100
Total volume of solution in ml
percentage mL of the solution.
Volume Volume of solute Volume of solute in mL
percentage %(v/V) ×100 dissolved in 100 mL of
Total volume of solution
the solution.
Strength Amount of solute in
g/L (or Mass of solute in grams grams present in one
3
g/dm )
3 Volume of solution inL/dm litre (or dm3) of
solution.
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1
DIGESTER GPAT DISCUSSION CENTER : MAKES STUDY EASY
Parts per ppm Mass solute  g  Number of parts of

6
million ×10 solute present in million
Mass solution  g 
(106) parts of solution.
Mole Ratio of number of
fraction nA moles of one
x xA = component to the total
n A + nB
number of moles of all
the components.
Molarity Number of moles of
Moles of solute solute dissolved one
M M=
Volume of solution inL/dm3 litre (or one dm3) of
solution.
Molality Number of moles of
Moles of solute
m m= solute per 1 kg of the
Mass of solvent in kg
solvent.
Normality Number of gram
Weight 1000 equivqents of solute
N N= ×
Eq.weight Volume  ml  present per liter of
solution.
Formality Weight 1000 Number of formula
F= × mass In grams present
F GFM Volume  ml 
Where, per liter of solution.
GFM = Gram formula mass of solute
DIGESTER -3
IMPORTANT LAW’S IN SOLUTION
LAW DISCRIPTION
Henary’s law The solubility of a gas in a liquid at a given temperature in directly
proportional to the partial pressure of the gas.
or P = Kh.C
Where,
P = Partial pressure of the gas
C = Concentration of dissolved gas
Raoult’s law Vapour pressure (PA) of a solution containing a non-volatile solute
is directly proportional to the mole fraction of the solvent (XA). The
proportionality constant being the vapour pressure of the pure
solvent (P0A).
PA = P0A XA
Where,
PA = Partial vapour pressure of solution
XA = Mole fraction of solvent
P0A = Vapour pressure of the pure solvent

2
Dalton’s law of The total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is equal to the sum
partial of the partial pressures exerted by each individual gas in the
pressures mixture.
Ptotal = ∑ni=1pi (or) Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 + …. + Pn
Where,
Ptotal = Total pressure exerted by the mixture of gases
P1, P2,…, Pn are the partial pressures of the gases 1, 2,…, ‘n’ in
the mixture of ‘n’ gases is the total pressure exerted by the
mixture of gases
DIGESTER -4
IDEAL AND NON IDEAL SOLUTION
NON-IDEAL SOLUTION
IDEAL SOLUTION SOLUTION HAVING SOLUTION HAVING
POSITIVE DEVIATION NEGATIVE DEVIATION
They obey Raoult’s law They do not obey Raoult’s They do not obey Raoult’s
law law
A-B = A-A or B-B A-B < < A-A or B-B A-B > > A-A or B-B
interactions interactions interactions
ΔHmix = 0 ΔHmix > 0 ΔHmix < 0
ΔVmix >= 0 ΔVmix > 0 ΔVmix < 0
Does not form an Forms azeotrope mixture Forms azeotrope mixture
azeotrope miture
Example : Benzene and Example : Acetone and Example : Chloroform and
toluene, Carbon disulphide, Benzene,
Hexane and heptane, All Acetone and Benzene, Chloroform and Diether,
the dilute solutions nearly Carbon Tetrachloride and Acetone and Aniline,
behave as an ideal solution Toluene, Nitric Acid and water,
Acetone and Ethanol, Acetic Acid and pyridine,
Ethanol and Water Hydrochloric Acid and
water

3
DIGESTER -5
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES AND THEIR TYPES
Colligative Properties Properties which depend only upon the

number of solute particles in the solution and
not on their nature.
Lowering of Vapour Pressure
The relative lowering of vapour
pressure of a solution containing a
non-volatile solute is equal to the mole
fraction of the solute present in the
solution.
Elevation of Boiling Point PO A - PA
Relative lowering of vapour pressure =
Elevation in boiling point is PO A
proportional to the molal PO A - PA nB
= XB =
concentration of the solute in the where, O
P A n A + nB
solution. M2 = Molecular weight of solute
ΔTb = Kbm w 2 and w 1 are weights of solute and solvent
Where, K × 100 × w 2
ΔTb = b
ΔTb = Elevation in boiling point M2 × w 1
Kb = Boiling Point Elevation Constant
m = Molal concentration of the solution
Depression of Freezing Point
Decrease of the freezing point of a
solvent on the addition of a non-
volatile solute. where,
ΔTf = Kbm M2 = Molecular weight of solute
Where, w 2 and w 1 are weights of solute and solvent
ΔTf = Depression of freezing point K × w 2 × 100
Tf = f
Kb = Freezing Point Constant M2 × w 1
m = Molal concentration of the solution
Excess pressure which must be applied to a
solution in order to prevent flow of solvent into
the solution through the semi-permeable
membrane.
p = nRT
Osmotic Pressure where,
p = Osmotic pressure
V = Volume of solution
n = No. of moles of solute that is dissolved
R = Gas constant
T = Absolute temperature

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DIGESTER -6
IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGY IN THERMODYNAMICS
TERMS DESCRIPTION
System Part of the universe under investigation.
Open System A system which can exchange both energy and matter with its
surroundings.
Example : Tea in cup, Human body, Reaction on container
Closed System A system which permits passage of energy but not mass,
across its boundary.
Example : Hot water in closed vessel
Isolated system A system which can neither exchange energy nor matter with
its surrounding.
Example : Tea in thermal flask
Path functions These depend upon the path followed, Example : Work, Heat
State Functions Property of system which depend only on the state of the
system and not on the path.
Example: Pressure, Volume, Temperature, Internal energy,
Enthalpy, Entropy
Intensive properties Properties of a system which do not depend on mass of the
system.
Example : Temperature, Pressure, Density, Concentration
Extensive properties Properties of a system which depend on mass of the system.
Example : Volume, Energy, Enthalpy, Entropy
DIGESTER -7
LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
LAW DESCRIPTION
Zero law If the two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third system then
they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
First law Energy can neither be created nor destroyed although it can be
converted from one form to the other.
Q = ΔE + W
Where,
Q = Amount of heat absorbed
ΔE = Change in internal energy
W = work done
Second Law The entropy of the universe is always increasing in the course of every
spontaneous or natural change.
Third law The entropy of a pure crystalline substance approaches zero as the
temperture approaches absolute zero.
Kichoff’s H 2  H 1
equation  C p
T1 T 2
Where,
Cp= (Cp of product)- (Cp of reactant)
H2, H1 = Heat of reaction on tempretureT1 T2
5
Hess’s law of The total enthalpy change in a chemical reaction is always constant (at
constant heat constant pressure and constant volume).
summation H = H1 + H2 + H2
DIGESTER -8
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS
THERMODYNAMIC
DESCRIPTION
PROCESS
Isothermal process Temperature remains constant, i.e., ΔQ = W
Isochoric process Volume remains constant, i.e., ΔQ = ΔE
Isobaric process Pressure remains constant, i.e., ΔQ = ΔE + W
Adiabatic process Heat is not exchanged by system with the surroundings, i.e.,
ΔE = W
Cyclic process System returns to its original state after undergoing a series of
change, i.e., Δ U cyclic = 0; Δ H cyclic = 0
Reversible process A process that follows the reversible path
Irreversible process The process which cannot be reversed and amount of energy
increases. All natural processes are Irreversible.
DIGESTER -9
HEAT CAPACITY
Heat capacity of a Heat Capacity (c) of a system is defined as the amount of heat
system required to raise the temperature of a system by 1° C.
Molar heat capacity It is the heat capacity 1 mole of substance of the system.
Specific heat capacity It is the heat capacity of 1 g of substance of the system
Molar heat capacity at CV = (3 / 2) R
constant volume
Molar heat capacity at Cp = (3 / 2) R + R = (5 / 2)R
constant pressure
Poisson’s ratio γ = Cp / CV = (5 / 3) = 1.66
For monoatomic gas γ = 1.66, for diatomic gas γ = 1.40, for
triatomic gas γ = 1.33
DIGESTER -10
ENTHALPY AND ENTROPY
Enthalpy (H) The total heat content of a system is called as enthalpy of a

system.
It is a state function and extensive property.
H = E + PV
Change in enthalpy ΔH = ΔE + PΔV
Exothermic process Heat is released ΔH = -ve
Endothermic process Heat is absorbed ΔH = +ve

6
Entropy (S) It is the measurement of randomness or disorder of the

molecules. It is a state function and extensive property.
Δ S > 0, Increase in randomness, heat is absorbed
Δ S < 0, Decrease in randomness, and heat is evolved.
DIGESTER -11
GIBBS ENERGY
Gibbs Energy or Gibbs Free The energy available for a system at some conditions
Energy (G) and by which useful work can be done. It is a state
function and extensive property.
G = H – TS
Gibbs free energy ΔG = ΔH – TΔS
ΔG > 0 Process is non-spontaneous
ΔG < 0 Process is spontaneous
ΔG = 0 Process is in equilibrium state
Gibbs–Helmholtz equation  G
  T   H
   = 2
 T  T
 
 p
where,
H = Enthalpy
T = Absolute zero temperature
G = Gibbs free energy
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON SPONTANEITY
Sign of ΔH Sign ΔG = ΔH – TΔS Remark
of ΔS
- + - Spontaneous at all
temperature
+ - + Non-spontaneous at all
temperature
+ + + at low temperature Non-spontaneous at
low temperature
- at high temperature Spontaneous at high
temperature
- - - at low temperature Spontaneous at low
temperature
+ at high temperature Non-spontaneous at
high temperature

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DIGESTER -12
IMPORTANT TERMIOLOGY IN ELECTROCHEMISTRY
TERM DESCRIPTION
Specific Measure of the ability of that material to conduct electricity.
conductivity SI unit of conductance is S (Siemens).
1
K=
ρ
Where,
K = Conductivity
 = Restivity of material
Molar Conductance property of a solution containing one mole of the
conductivity electrolyte.
1000
m = κ ×
Molarity
Equivalent Net conductance of every ion that is produced from one gram
conductance equivalent of a given substance.
1000
eq = κ ×
Normality
Faraday’s First The mass of a substance deposited or liberated at any
Law electrode is directly proportional to the amount of charge
passed.
Eq.Wt
Z=
96500
Where,
Z = Electrochemical Equivalent
Faraday’s Mass of a substance deposited or liberated at any electrode on
Second Law passing a certain amount of charge is directly proportional to
its chemical equivalent weight.
Charge on one mole electrons = 1F = 96487 C
W1 E1
=
W2 E2
Where,
W1 W2 = Weight of substance
E1 E2 = Equivalent weight
Kohlrausch’s Equivalent conductivity of an electrolyte at infinite dilution is equal to the
law sum of the conductance of the anions and cations.

λ eq = λ c + λ a
Where

λ eq = Equivalence conductivity at In finite Dilution
λ c = Conductivity of Cation
λ a = Equivalence conductivity at Anion
EMF series Arrangement of elements in order of their increasing electrode
potential values.
8
Nernst equation A relation between the cell potential of an electrochemical cell, the
standard cell potential, temperature, and the reaction quotient.
Ecell = E0 – [RT/nF] ln Q
Where,
Ecell = Cell potential of the cell
E0 = Cell potential under standard conditions
R = Universal gas constant
T = Temperature
n = Number of electrons transferred in the redox reaction
F = Faraday constant
Q = Reaction quotient
Electrochemical Are cells in which chemical energy is converted into electrical
cell energy.
Salt bridge An inverted U-tube like structure.
The tube is filled with concentrated solution of an inert electrolyte
like KCl, KNO3, NH4NO3, Agar-Agar, K4[Fe(CN)6]
DIGESTER -13
STATE OF MATTER
LAW DESCRIPTION FORMULA

Boyle’s law At constant temperature, the pressure of a fixed amount
(i.e., number of moles n) of gas varies inversely with its P1 V1
=
volume. P2 V2
Charle’s law At constant pressure, the volume of a given mass of a gas V1 V2

=
is directly proportional to its absolute temperature. T 1 T2
Gay Lussac’s At constant volume, pressure of a given mass of a gas is P1 P2
=
law directly proportional to the temperature. T 1 T2
Avogadro law Equal volumes of all gases under the same conditions of
V n
temperature and pressure contain equal number of
V = nk
molecules.
Combined gas This law states that “at constant volume, the pressure of P1V1 P2V2
law a given mass of a gas is directly proportional to its =
T1 T2
absolute temperature.
Ideal gas Ideal gas obey all the three laws i.e. Boyle’s, Charles’s,
equation and Avogadro‘s law strictly. PV
PV = nRT R=
nT
The value of R was found out to be
R = 8.314 J mol–1 K–1, R = 0.0821 liter atm K–1 mol–1
Ideal gas The gas which obeys the equation pV = nRT at every temperature and
pressure range strictly.
Real gases None of the gases present in universe strictly obey the equation
pV =nRT.
Hence they are known as real or non-ideal gases.
Real gases behave, ideally at low p and high T.
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DIGESTER -14
IMPORTANT GAS EQUATION
EQUATION DESCRIPTION
Graham’s law Under Similar conditions of temperature and pressure, the rates of
of diffusion diffusion of gases are inversely proportional to the square root of their
densities.
r1 d2
= (At same TEMPRETURE and PRESSURE)
r2 d1
r1 M2
= (At same TEMPRETURE and PRESSURE)
r2 M1
Where,
r1 , r2 = Rate of effusion
d1 , d2 = Density gases
M1 , M2 = Molar mass of gases
The kinetic 1
equation
pV = mnu 2
3
Where,
m = Mass of gas
u2 = Root mean square speed of gas
n = Total number of molecule
V = Volume of gas
Van der waals
 an 2 
equation  P + 2   V - nb  = nRT
 v 
Where,
a = Measure of magnitude of attractive force
b = Measure of effective size of the ideal gas molecules
R= Gas constant, T= Temperature, P= Pressure
DIGESTER -15
IMPORTANT MEASURABLE PROPERTIES OF GASES
TERM COMMENT
Mass It is expressed in gram or kg.
Volume It is equal to the volume of the container and is expressed in terms
of liter (L), Milliliter (mL), Cubic centimeter (cm3), Cubic meter (m3)
or Cubic decimeter (dm3).
1 L = 1000 mL = 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3
1 m3 = 103 dm3 = 106 cm3 = 106 ml
Pressure Gas pressure is measured with manometer and atmospheric
pressure is measured by barometer.
1 atm = 76 cm of Hg = 760 mm of Hg = 760 torr
1 atm = 101.325 kPa = 101325 Pa = 101.325 Nm-2 = 1.01325 bar
1 bar = 105 Pa.
10
Temperature It is measured in Celsius scale (C) or in Kelvin scale (K).

SI unit of temperature is kelvin (K), T (K) = t°C+ 273
Conversion of temperature between calcius to kelvin and fahrenheit
C F  32 K  273
 
5 9 5
Standard STP or NTP means 273.15 K (O°C) temperature and 1 bar (i.e.,
temperature Exactly 105 Pascal) pressure. At STP, molar volume of an ideal gas is
and pressure 22.71098 L mol-1
DIGESTER -16
IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGY
TERM COMMENT
Dipole A dipole moment is the product of the magnitude of the charge and the
moment distance between the centers of the positive and negative charges. It is
denoted by the Greek letter ‘µ’.
Dipole Moment (µ) = Charge (Q) * distance of separation (r)
Unit of dipole moment is Debye D.
Dipole moment of water is 1.84 D
Symmetrical molecule have zero dipole moment. Example: CO2 , CCl4
Colligative Depend upon only number of molecule.
properties Example: Relative lowering in vapour pressure, Elevation of boiling point,
Depression of freezing point and Osmotic pressure.
Additive Sum of corresponding properties of atoms constituting the molecule.
properties Example: Molecular weight, bond formation enthalpy
Constitutive Depend upon arrangement of atom.
properties Example: Optical activity
Additive and Depend upon the adding the properties of constituent atom but also depend
Constitutive upon arrangement of molecule.
properties Example: Magnetic rotation, Molar refractivity
Refractive The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to its speed in a specific medium.
index c Material Refractive index
n=
v
Where, Air 1.0003
n = Refractive index Water 1.333
c = Velocity of light in vacuum Diamond 2.417
v = Velocity of light in a substance Ice 1.31
Specific The specific refraction r of a substance is equal to the substance's
refraction molecular refraction R divided by its molecular weight M.
Molar Product of molar mass (M) of liquid and specific refraction.
refractivity M(n 2 - 1)
A=
ρ(n 2 + 1)
Where,
A = Molar refractivity, ρ = Density, M = Molecular weight
Refractometer A refractometer takes the refraction angles and correlates them to refractive index
(nD) values that have been established. Using these values, you can determine the
concentrations of solutions.
Abbe’s refractrometer – To determine refractive index.

11
DIGESTER -17
CHEMICAL KINETICS
DIGESTER -18
IMPORTANT GRAPHS RATE V/S TIME
HALF LIFE V/S CONCENTRATION
RATE V/S CONCETRATION

12
DIGESTER : ORGANIC CHEMISTRY DIGESTER
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
DIGESTER -19
STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM
ISOMERISM DESCRIPTION
Chain Such compounds have the same molecular formula but differ in the
Isomerism order in which the carbon atoms are bonded to each other.
CH3
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3 CH3 CH CH3
n-Butane (C4H10) Iso butane (C4H10)
Position Positional isomers have same molecular formula but differ in the
Isomerism position of a functional group on the carbon chain.
CH2 CH CH2 CH3 H3C CH CH CH3
But-1-ene But-2-ene
Functional Functional isomers have same molecular formula but differ in
Isomerism functional groups.
CH3 CH2 OH CH3 O CH3
Ethanol (C2H6O) Dimethyl ether (C2H6O)
Metamerism This type of isomerism is due to unequal distribution of carbon
atoms on either side of the functional group. Such compounds are
members of homologous series.
CH3 O CH2 CH2 CH3 CH3 CH2 O CH2 CH3
Methyl propyl ether (C4H10O) Diethyl ether (C4H10O)
Tautomerism This is a special type of functional isomerism in which isomers are
in dynamic equilibrium with each other.
CH3 C CH2 CH3 C CH2
O H O H
keto ane + ol = enol
Ring-Chain The structural isomerism occurring due to the different
Isomerism arrangements of carbon atoms in a ring and in a chain is known as
ring chain isomerism and compounds are called ring chain isomers.
CH3 CH CH2 [open chain]
C3H6 CH2
CH2 CH2 [close chain or ring]

13
DIGESTER -20
STEREO ISOMERISM
Geometrical Geometrical isomerism is possible in cyclic compounds There should be

isomerism restriction of rotation if two carbons are linked with a cyclic structure.
Nomenclature of geometrical isomerism
Cis –Trans System If same groups at same side then cis and if same
groups at different side then trans.
Physical properties of cis-trans
Dipole moment = cis > trans
Boiling point = cis > trans
Melting point = trans > cis
Stability = trans > cis
E – Z System E (Entgegen): When high priority groups are opposite
side.
Z (Zussaman): When high priority groups are same
side.
Optical Two or more than two compound have same molecular formula, some
isomerism structural formula but different behavior towards plane polarized light.
Specific rotation- Rotation produced by a solution of length of 10
centimeters and unit concentration (1 g/mL) for the given wavelength of
the light at the given temperature.
t°C α
Specific roration, [α]wavelenght = obs
ι×C
Racemic mixture: Mixture of d and l isomer.
Meso form: Optical isomer with a plane of symmetry.
Nomenclature of Optical isomerism
R-S system Configuration R is given to the isomer in which
sequence of groups is clockwise.
Configuration S is given to the isomer in which
sequence of groups is anticlockwise.
D-l system Dextro (d): The optical isomer which rotates the plane
of the polarized light to the right (Clockwise) is known
as dextrorotatory isomer.
Laevo (l): The optical isomer which rotates the plane
of the polarized light to the left (Anticlockwise) is
known as laevorotatory isomer.
Threo-erythro Same groups are present at the same side of the
system carbon chain erythro form.
Same groups are present on the opposite side of the
carbon chain threo form.
Conformational Free rotation of carbon-carbon single bond, different arrangement of
isomerism atoms in space are obtained. These arrangements are called conformers.
Staggered Atoms or groups bonded to carbons at each end of a C-
conformation C bond are as far apart as possible.
Eclipsed Atoms bonded to carbons at each end of a carbon-
conformation carbon bond are directly opposed to one another.
Skew or Gauche All other conformations in between eclipsed and
conformation staggered conformations.

14
DIGESTER -21
COMPARISON BETWEEN ENANTIOMERS AND DIASTEREOMERS
ENANTIOMERS DIASTEREOMERS
1. They are non-super imposable 1. They don’t have any such relationship.
mirror images. 2. They have different physical properties
2. They have identical physical such as melting
properties such as melting Points, boiling points, densities,
Points, boiling points, densities, solubility’s, etc.
solubility’s, etc. 3. They can be separated by physical
3. They cannot be separated by methods such as fractional
physical methods such as fractional crystallization, fractional distillation,
crystallization, fractional chromatography, etc.
distillation, etc.
DIGESTER -22
TERMINOLOGY IN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
TYPE OF ATTACKING REAGET

Electrophiles Which loves Positively charged = H+ SO3H+ NO+
electrons. Neutral electrophile = BF3 SO3 CO2
Nucleophile Attacks on the positive site. Example = H- OH- CN- X- NH2-
REACTION INTERMEDIATE
Carbocation Positive charge on carbon atom. Example: CH+3 , C2H+3
Carbanions Negative charge on carbon atom. Example: R3C:−
Free Radical Electrically neutral species in which unpaired electron is present on
carbon atom. Example: CH3:CH3 , CH3+ AlCl3-
Carbenes Neutral carbon species in which carbon atom was bonded to two
monovalent atom. Example: R=C:
Nitrenes Neutral Nitrogen species in which Nitrogen is bonded to two
monovalent atom. Example: NH or CF3N
DIGESTER -23
TYPES OF REACTIONS
(A) Substitution Electrophilic Reaction of aromatic compound
Reaction Substitution
Nucleophilic SN2 nucleophilic reaction = Acid and
Substitution derivative
SN1 substitution reaction = Alkyl
hailide
(B) Addition Electrophilic Addition Alkene, alkyne
reaction Nucleophilic Addition Aldehyde, ketone
Free radical Addition Addition of HBr on alkene

15
(C) Elimination Alpha elimination Removal of H and X from one C

reaction atom.
Beta elimination Removal of H and X from adjacent C
atom.
(D) Isomeri- Interconversion of one isomer into another isomer.
sation reaction
DIGESTER -24
REACTION MEACHNISM
INDUCTIVE Polarity developed in Carbon–chain due to the shifting of

EFFECT sigma bond electron by the group or atom present on carbon-
chain.
It is a permanent effect.
Inductive effect of hydrogen is always zero.
APPLICATION OF I – EFFECT
1)Stability of carbocation
1
Energy  charge 
satability
Stability of Carbocation  No. of + Igroups
2) Acid strengths
Acid strengths -I effect
CH3COOH < CH2FCOOH < CHF2COOH < CF3COOH
RESONANCE Polarity developed in conjugate system by the complete
EFFECT transfer of non–bonding electron or pie bond electron due to
the group or atom attach with conjugate system is known as
mesomeric effect.
APPLICATION OF RESONANCE EFFECT
1) Stability of carbanion - Stability is increased by resonance.
2) Stability of free radicals - Stability is increased by
resonance.
3) Acidic strength
1 1
Acidic stenght  -M  -I  
+M +1
Complete transfer of e– of –C–H  bond towards  bond or
HYPER positive charge or free electron is called as H-effect
CONJUGATION (permanent effect).
EFFECT APPLICATION OF H-EFFECT
1) Stability of carbocation = More H effect more stable
carbocation’s.
2) Stability of alkenes = More H effect more stable alkenes.
ELECTROMERIC Complete transfer of a shared pair of -electrons to one of the
EFFECT atoms joined by a multiple bond on the demand of an
attacking reagent. It is a temporary effect.

16
DIGESTER -25
COMPARISON OF E1 AND E2
S.NO CATEGORY E1 E2
1. Kinetics 1st order 2nd order
2. Base Strength Rate independent of base Needs Strong bases
strength
3. Solvent Good ionizing Polarity not important
4. Leaving Group Needs Good LG Needs Good LG
5. Stereochemistry No special geometry Anti-periplanar
6. Rate k[RX] k[RX][B:¯]
7. Substrate 3°>2°>>>1° 3°>2°>1°
8. Rearrangement Possible Not Possible
DIGESTER -26
COMPARISON OF SN1 AND SN2
S.NO CATEGORY SN1 SN2

1. Kinetics 1st order 2nd order
2. Solvent Good ionizing Faster in aprotic
3. Stereochemistry Racemic Mixture Inversion
4. Rearrangement Possible Not Possible
5. Nucleophile Rate independent to Nu- Needs Strong Nu
6. Rate k[RX] k[RX][Nu:¯ ]
7. Leaving Group Need Good LG Needs Good LG
8. Substrate 3°>2°>1° >1°>2°>3°
DIGESTER -27
FUNCTIONAL GROUP AND THEIR PREFIX & SUFFIX
S.NO. FUNCTIONAL GROUP PREFIX SUFFIX

1. –(C) OOH (carboxylic × Oic acid
acid)
–COOH Carboxy Carboxylic acid
2. –SO3H (sulphonic acid) Sulpho Sulphonic acid
3. × Oic anhydride
4. –(C)OOR (ester) × Alkyl ---- oate

–COOR Alkoxy carbonyl Alkyl ---- carboxylate
or Carbalkoxy -
5. –(C)OX (acid halide) × Oly halide
–COX Halo formyl Carbonyl halide

17
6. –(C)ONH2 (amide) × Amide

–CONH2 Carbomoyl Caroxamide
7. –(C)N (cyanide) × Nitrile
–CN Cyano Carbonitrile
8. –NC (isocyanide) Isocyano/carbyl Isonitrilecarbyl amine
amino
9. –(C)HO (aldehyde) Oxo Al
–CHO Formyl Carbaldehyde
10. Keto/oxo One
11. –OH (alcohol) Hydroxy Ol

12. –SH (thio alcohol) Mercapto Thiol
13. –NH2 (amine) Amino Amine
DIGESTER -28
COMMON NAME AND IUPAC NAME OF CARBOXLIC ACID
STRUCTURE COMMON NAME IUPAC NAME

HCOOH Formic acid Methanoic acid
CH3COOH Acetic acid Ethanoic acid
CH3CH2COOH Propionic acid Propanoic acid
CH3CH2CH2COOH Butyric acid Butanoic acid
(CH3)2CHCOOH iso-Butyric acid 2-Methylpropanoic acid
HOOC COOH Oxalic acid Ethanedioic acid
H2 Malonic acid Propanedioic acid
HOOC C COOH
HOOC (CH2)2 COOH Succinic acid Butanedioic acid
HOOC (CH2)3 COOH Glutaric acid Pentanedioic acid
HOOC (CH2)4 COOH Adipic acid Hexanedioic acid
H2 - Propane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic
H
HOOC C C CH2 COOH acid
COOH
Benzoic acid Benzenecarboxylic acid
COOH (Benz+ oic acid)
CH2COOH Phenylacetic acid 2-Phenylethanoic acid
COOH Phthalic acid Benzene-1,2-dicarboxylic

acid
COOH

18
DIGESTER -29
DRUGS AND THEIR EFFECTIVE ISOMERS
S. NO. MATERIAL EFFECTIVE ISOMERS

1. L-Ascorbic acid (-)
2. Warfarin (-) S
3. Chloramphenicol D(-) threo
4. Chloprothixene Cis
5. Apomorphine R (-)
6. Ephedrine D(-) Erythro
7. Dextroamphetamine S(+)
8. Ibuprofen S-(+)
9. Naproxen (-)
10. Morphine (-)
11. Ratinol (-)
12. -Methyl dopa (-)
13. Ampicillin (+)
14. Indomethacin S(+)
15. Ethambutol (+)
16. D-manose --sweet, -Bitter
17. Methyl dopa (L)
18. Erythrityl tetranitrate (R*,S*)
19. Biotin (+)
20. Cycloserine D(+)
DIGESTER -30
TYPE OF HYBRIDIZATION & POSSIBLE STRUCTURE
S.NO. TYPE OF HYBRIDIZATION EXAMPLES

1. sp-hybridization BeF2, CO2, CS2, BeCI2
2. sp2- hybridization BF 3, AlCl3, BeF-3, NO-2, SO2, O3
3. sp3- hybridization CH3, CCl4, PCl+4, ClO-4, NH+4, BF-24, SO-24, AlCl-4, NH3,
PF3, ClO-3, H+3O, PCl3, XeO3, N(CH3)3, CH-3, H2O,
H2S, NH-2,OF2, Cl2O, SF2, I3+
4. sp3d- hybridization PCl5, SOF4, AsF5, SF4, PF-4, AsF-4, SbF-4, XeO2F2,
ClF3, lCl3, l-3, Br-3, lCl-2, ClF-2, XeF2
5 sp3d2- hybridization PCl-6, SF6, XeOF4, ClF5, SF-5 XeF+5, XeF4
6. sp3d3- hybridization lF7, XeF6, XeF 5

19
DIGESTER -31
COMPARISON BETWEEN HYBRIDIZATIONS
Sp Sp2 Sp3
Sp hybridization is the Sp2 hybridization is the Sp3 hybridization is the
hybridization that takes mixing of one s atomic mixing of one s atomic
place between an s atomic orbital with two p atomic orbital with three p atomic
orbital and a p atomic orbitals. orbitals.
orbital.
S characteristic percentage S characteristic percentage S characteristic percentage is
is 50%. is 33.33%. 25%.
P characteristic percentage P characteristic percentage P characteristic percentage
is 50%. is 66.66%. is 75%.
Angle between orbitals is Angle between orbitals is Angle between orbitals is
180o C. 120o C. 109.5o C.
Geometry of orbital Geometry of orbital Geometry of orbital
arrangement is linear. arrangement is trigonal arrangement is tetrahedral.
planar.
Results in two Results in one Does not result in any un-
unhybridized p orbitals. unhybridized p orbitals hybridized p orbitals.
DIGESTER -32
BOND LENGTH
BOND BOND LENGTH (Å)

C-C 1.54
C=C 1.34
C≡C 1.20
C-H(sp3-s) 1.112
C-H(sp2-s) 1.103
C-H(sp-s) 1.08
C-O 1.40
DIGESTER -33
BOND ENERGY
BOND BOND ENERGY (KCAL/MOL)

C-C 83
C=C 146
C≡C 192
C-H(sp3-s) 97
C-H(sp2-s) 104
C-H(sp-s) 120
C-O 186

20
DIGESTER -34
IMPORTANT NAME REACTION
1. Wolff Kishner reduction/ Hung-milnon reaction  Aldehydes and ketones (>C=O)

can be reduced to hydrocarbons in presence of excess of hydrazine and sodium alkoxide
on heating.
2. Meerweili-Ponndorf-Verley (MPV) reduction Ketones can also be reduced to

secondary alcohols with aluminium isopropoxide in propan-2-ol solution and this is
Meerweili-Ponndorf-Verley (MPV) reduction.
3. Pinacol-pinacolone rearrangement Two molecules of ketones undergo reduction in

the presence of Mg/ Hg to form pinacol. Upon treatment with mineral acids, pinacol is
converted into pinacolone. This transformation involves dehydration and rearrangement
called pinacol-pinacolone rearrangement.
4. Beckmann rearrangement Ketoximes on treatment with acid catalyst such as conc.

H2SO4, PCl5, H3PO4, SOCl2 or C6H5SO2Cl etc., undergo Beckmann rearrangement to
form a substituted amide. This rearrangement is intramolecular and involves 1,2-shift.
5. Baeyer Villiger oxidation Aliphatic ketones undergo oxidation with Caro's acid (per
monosulphuric acid, H2SO4) or per benzoic acid (C6H5CO3H) or m-chloro perbenzoic
acid or per acetic acid (CH3CO3H) or CF3CO3H, etc., to form esters or their hydrolysed
products.

21
6. Aldol condensation It is a chemical reaction in which two or more molecules of same

or different carbonyl compounds containing α-hydrogen atom unite together in the
presence of dilute bases such as NaOH, Ba(OH)2 or K2CO3, etc., to form compounds
called aldols. The term aldol is derived from the combination of words aldehyde and
alcohol, the two functional groups present in the product. In such condensation, the
hydrogen of one molecule in a-position with respect to the carbonyl group enters into
combination with the oxygen of the arbonyl group of the other molecule forming a
hydroxy group. So, aldol condensation is an important reaction based on the acidity of a-
hydrogens of aldehydes and ketones.
7. Reduction of Fehling's solution

Fehling solution I  CUS04 solution.
Fehling solution II  Alkaline solution of sodium potassium tartrate also called
Rochelle salt.
8. Cannizzaro's reactions Formaldehyde, benzaldehyde and other aldehydes containing

no α-hydrogen atoms on heating with concentrated alkali solution (50%) undergo
Cannizzaro's reaction. In this reaction, one molecule is oxidised to carboxylic acid at the
expense of other which is reduced to 1° alcohol, e.g., formaldehyde undergoes
disproportionation (oxidation-reduction).
9. Tischenko's reaction This is a modified form of Cannizzaro's reaction. All aldehydes

with or without α-hydrogen atoms undergo Cannizzaro's reaction in presence of
aluminium ethoxide. The acid (by oxidation) and the alcohol (by reduction) formed react
together to give the ester.
10. Claisen-Schmidt reaction This condensation reaction (also known as Claisen

reaction) is between an aliphatic aldehyde or ketone containing a-hydrogen with
benzaldehyde in the presence of dilute alkali to form an α,β-unsaturated compound.

22
11. Schmidt reaction This is a reaction between a carbonyl compound and hydrazoic
acid in presence of conc. H2SO4 to form alkyl cyanide and N-alkyl formamide.
12. Lederer Manase's reaction When phenol is treated with 40% formaldehyde in
presence of dilute acid or alkali, a mixture of ortho and para-hydroxy benzyl alcohol is
formed.
13. Diazotisation [Action of nitrous acid (NaN02 + HCl)]: Diazotisation is a reaction in

which ice cooled solution of an aromatic primary amine (having -NH2 group directly
attached to nucleus) in an inorganic acid reacts with sodium nitrite solution leading to
the formation of diazonium salts (Diazo reaction).
14. Stephen's reaction Aldehydes are obtained by partial reduction of cyanides with
SnCl2 and HCI and then steam distilled.
15. Finkelstein reaction The corresponding alkyl bromides or chlorides are heated with a
solution of sodium iodide in acetone or methanol. This is a convenient method for the
preparation of alkyl iodides.
16. Wurtz reaction  An ether solution of an alkyl halide is treated with sodium which
removes the halogen of alkyl halide and the two alkyl radicals join together to form an
alkane.
17 Corey-House synthesis An alkyl halide is first converted into lithium alkyl which
reacts with cuprous iodide to form lithium dialkyl cuprate, LiR2Cu. It is then treated
with an alkyl halide to give an alkane.

23
18. Friedel-Crafts reaction Alkyl halides react with benzene in presence of anhydrous
aluminium halides to form a homologue of benzene.
19. Reimer-Tiemann reaction Chloroform reacts with phenol when heated in presence of
sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide. The product formed is salicylaldehyde.
20. Bouveault-Blanc reduction The reducing agent used is sodium and ethanol. The
aldehyde, ketones and esters etc., are reduced by nascent hydrogen into corresponding
alcohols.
21. Williamson's synthesis Ethers are formed by heating alkyl halides with sodium or
potassium alkoxides or dry silver oxide. The attacking nucleophile is OR -.
22. Rosenmund's reduction Acid chlorides can be reduced into aldehydes with hydrogen
in boiling xylene using palladium or platinum as a catalyst supported on barium
sulphate. This reaction is called Rosenmund's reduction. Ketones cannot be prepared
by this method.
23. Wacker process This is a recent method for the manufacturing of acetaldehyde from
ethylene. Both aldehydes and ketones can be prepared by this method. Alkenes are
directly oxidised to their corresponding aldehydes and ketones by treating with an
acidified aqueous solution of palladium chloride and cupric chloride in presence of
oxygen or air.
24. Frankland's reaction The method is similar to Wurtz reaction. The alkyl halide is
heated with zinc in inert solvent, higher alkane is formed.

24
25. Clemmensen's reduction  Aldehydes and ketones when reduced with amalgamated
zinc and conc. HCI also yield alkanes. This process is known as Clemmensen
reduction.
26. Wolff rearrangement diazoacetone loses nitrogen to form a ketene by rearrangement

when warmed in the presence of silver oxide as catalyst.
27. Hofmann bromamide reaction or Hofmann degradation Amides when heated with
bromine and caustic soda or caustic potash solution, yield primary amines containing
one carbon atom less than the amide. This is an important reaction for reducing a carbon
atom from a compound, i.e., -CONO2 is changed to -NH2 group.
28. Claisen condensation Ethyl acetate (two molecules) undergoes Claisen condensation
in presence of sodium ethoxide involving α-hydrogen atom. Two molecules of ethyl
acetate combine together to form ethyl acetoacetate or acetoacetic ester (α,β-keto ester).
29. Hofmann's ammonolysis method A mixture of amines (primary, secondary and

tertiary amines) along with quaternary compound is formed when alkyl halide is heated
with alcoholic ammonia in a sealed tube at 100°C.
30. Mendius reaction Primary amines can be prepared by reduction of nitriles. The
reduction is done either catalytically with H2 and Raney Ni or with sodium in alcohol or
sodium amalgam and alcohol or with LiAlH4.

25
31. Curtius degradation The overall reaction which proceeds by the elimination of
nitrogen from acylazide followed by acidic or alkaline hydrolysis to yield primary amine
containing one carbon less, is called Curtius degradation.
32. Mannich Reaction Reduction of N-substituted amides with LiAlH4 yield secondary
amines.
33. Hinsberg's method It involves the treatment of the mixture with benzene sulphonyl
chloride, i.e., Hinsberg's reagent (C6H5SO2Cl). The solution is then made alkaline with
aqueous alkali to form sodium or potassium salt of monoalkyl benzene sulphonamide
(soluble in alkali).
34. Cope reaction When a 3°-amine oxide containing at least one β-hydrogen is heated at
150°C, it decomposes to form an alkene and a derivative of hydroxylamine (Thermal
elimination).
35. Kolbe's method or Kolbe's electrolysis  Electrolysis of a concentrated aqueous

solution of either sodium or potassium salts of saturated monocarboxylic acids yields
higher alkanes at anode.

26
36. From Grignard reagents  Alkyl magnesium halides (RMgX) are called Grignard
reagents. These undergo double decomposition reactions with water or ammonia or
alcohol or amines having active H atom (attached to strongly electronegative 0, N, S or
F and triple bond etc.) to give alkane corresponding to alkyl (R -) group of Grignard
reagent.
37. Retropinacol rearrangement (Wagner rearrangement) It is the rearrangement in

open chain compounds in which shifting of C6H5 (Ph-) ; CH3 and H- takes place to form
more stable carbocation and hence more stable products. Shifting of these groups takes
place in following sequence: C6H5 (Ph-) > CH3.> H-.
38. Birch redudion reduction of alkynes with lithiuin or sodium in liquid NH3 (Birch
reduction) yields predominantly trans-alkene.
39. Wittig reaction Conversion of aldehydes and ketones to alkenes with the help of
alkylidene (methylene) triphenyl phosphorus (Wittig reagent) is known as Wittig
reaction.
40. Peterson reaction β-Hydroxy alkyl silane gives elimination reaction in presence of
acid as well as base. It is stereosefective of E- and Z- isomers of alkene.
41. Sabatier-Senderen's reaction Alkenes combine with hydrogen under pressure and in
presence of a catalyst (Ni, Pt, Pd or Rh) to form corresponding alkanes.

27
42. Sandmeyer reaction The most convenient method of preparaing chlorobenzene in

laboratory is by Sandmeyer's reaction, in which benzene diazonium chloride obtained
from aniline is heated with cuprous chloride in presence of hydrochloric acid.
43. Gattermann-Koch synthesis It is a direct method for introducing an aldehydic group

(-CHO) in benzene. It is called Gattermann-Koch synthesis when a mixture of dry HCI
gas and carbon monoxide is used in presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride.
44. Blance reaction By heating benzene with formaldehyde solution and HCI in presence
of anhydrous zinc chloride, benzyl chloride is formed and this reaction is called
chloromethylation or Blance reaction.
45. Von Richter reaction When halonitrobenzene is heated with KCN at 150oC, the-,-
NO2 group is expelled and a cyano (or -COOH) group enters the ring at ortho-position
with respect to nitro group.
46. Ulmann biaryl synthesis Iodobenzene, on heating with copper at 200°C in a sealed
tube, forms biphenyl. The reaction is facilitated if a strong electron withdrawing group is
present inortho or para-position.
47. Hunsdieeker's reaction an alkyl halide is formed when the silver salt of
monocarboxylic acid is heated with halogen.
48. Raschig method The vapours of benzene, air and hydrogen chloride are passed over
cupric chloride at about 230°C when chlorobenzene is obtained in sufficient yield.

28
49. Fischer Esterification Reaction ethyl acetate is prepared by refluxing a mixture of

absolute alcohol and glacial acetic acid in presence of a few drops of conc. sulphuric
acid (catalyst) or hydrogen chloride gas.
50. Gabriel Phthalimide Synthesis Phthalimide is reacted with ethanolic solution of

KOH to form potassium phthalimide. The potassium salt is treated with an alkyl halide.
The product N-alkyl phthalimide is put to hydrolysis with dilute hydrochloric acid under
pressure when pure primary amine is formed.
51. Etard reaction Chromyl chloride dissolved in CS2 or CC14 is made to react with
toluene in CS2 when a brown coloured product is formed. This product is decomposed
with water when benzaldehyde is formed.
52. Perkin reaction When an aromatic aldehyde is heated with an aliphatic acid
anhydride with atleast two α-H atom in presence of Na or K salt of corresponding acid, a
condensation reaction giving α,β-unsaturated acid is formed.
Aromatic aldehyde Acid anhydride α, β- unsaturated aromatic acid

53. Diels-Alder reaction it is a diene-dienophile addition reaction. It forms cyclic
compounds.
54. Woodward reaction When alkene is treated with iodine and silver acetate, it will
undergo nucleophilic displacement with acetate in the presence of water. The
intermediate product gives the desired diols on hydrolysis.

29
55. Curtius rearrangement It is the thermal decomposition of an acyl azide to

an isocyanate with loss of nitrogen gas. The isocyanate then undergoes attack by a
variety of nucleophiles such as water, alcohols and amines, to yield a primary
amine, carbamate or urea derivative respectively.
56. Willgerodt rearrangement It is the conversion of acetophenone to 2

phenylacetamide and phenylacetic acid in the presence of modified reagents (sulfur,
concentrated ammonium hydroxide and pyridine).
57. Darzens glysidic ester synthesis It is the chemical reaction of

a ketone or aldehyde with an α-haloester in the presence of a base to form an α,β-
epoxy ester, also called a "glycidic ester".
58. Stobbe condensation
Diethyl succinate Benzophenone

59. Robinson annulation The term ‘annulation’ stands for ‘building a ring’. In this
reaction, the formation of α, β-unsaturated cyclic ketones from methyl vinyl ketones
and aldehyde or ketones takes place. Actually this reaction is a combination of two
reactions. One is ‘Michael Addition’ and the other is ‘Aldol Condensation’.
60. Pfitzner –Moffatt oxidation It is a chemical reaction for the oxidation of primary and
secondary alcohols to aldehydes and ketones, respectively. The oxidant is a combination
of dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCC).
O
DMSO. DCC
OH
H
N
H

30
DIGESTER -35
NAMED REACTIONS
NAME STARTING
CATALYST END PRODUCT
REACTIONS MATERIALS
Wolff Kishner Aldehydes and H2NNH2; C2H5ONa; Methylene group
reduction/ Hung- ketones Glycol
milnon reaction
Meerweili-Ponndorf- Ketones [(CH3)2CHO]3Al; 2o alcohol
Verley (MPV) (CH3)2CHOH
reduction
Pinacol-pinacolone Ketones Mg/ Hg; mineral acid 2,3-dimethyl butane-
rearrangement 2,3-dilol(Pinacol); 3,3-
dimethyl butan-2-one
(Pinacolone)
Beckmann Ketoximes conc. H2SO4, PCl5, N-methyl acetamide
rearrangement H3PO4, SOCl2 or
C6H5SO2Cl
Aldol condensation carbonyl NaOH, Ba(OH)2 or Aldol
compounds K2CO3
Baeyer Villiger Aliphatic ketones (per monosulphuric Esters
oxidation acid, H2SO4) or per
benzoic acid
(C6H5CO3H) or m-
chloro perbenzoic acid
or per acetic acid
(CH3CO3H) or
CF3CO3H
Cannizzaro's Aldehydes (with Conc. Alkali Carboxylic acids
reactions no α-hydrogen)
Tischenko's reaction Aldehydes (with (C2H5O)3Al Ester
or without α-
hydrogen)
Claisen-Schmidt aliphatic aldehyde Dil. NaOH α,β-unsaturated
reaction or ketone (with α- compound
hydrogen)
Schmidt reaction Carbonyl conc. H2SO4 Alkyl cyanide and N-
compounds alkyl formamide
Lederer Manase's Phenol dilute acid or alkali o- and p-hydroxy
reaction benzyl alcohol
Diazotisation aromatic primary NaNO2; HCl Diazonium salt
amine

31
Stephen's reaction Alkyl cyanide SnCl2 and HCI Aldehyde

Finkelstein reaction alkyl bromides or sodium iodide in Alkyl iodides
chlorides acetone or methanol
Wurtz reaction Alkyl halide Dry ether Alkane
Corey-House Alkyl halide - Alkane
synthesis
Friedel-Crafts Toluene Anhydrous AlCl3 o- and p-methyl anisol
reaction
Reimer-Tiemann Phenol and NaOH or KOH salicylaldehyde
reaction Chloroform
Bouveault-Blanc aldehyde, ketones H2/ Ni or Na/ alcohol Alcohol
reduction and esters or LiAlH4 or NaBH4
Williamson's Alkyl halide C2H5ONa or dry Ag2O Ether
synthesis
Rosenmund's Acid chlorides Pd/ BaSO4; boiling Aldehydes
reduction xylene
Wacker process Ethylene PdCl2; CuCl2; O2 or air Aldehyde or ketone
Clemmensen's Aldehyde & Zn-Hg/ conc. HCl Alkane
reduction ketone
Wolff rearrangement Diazoacetone HCl; NH3; Ag2O; Ketone and amide
HCOOH
Hofmann bromamide Acid amides Br2; KOH 1o amines
reaction or Hofmann
degradation
Claisen condensation Ethyl acetate C2H5ONa ethyl acetoacetate
Hofmann's Alkyl halide Alcoholic NH3 mixture of amines (1o,
ammonolysis method 2o and 3o amines) along
with quaternary
compound
Mendius reaction Alkyl nitriles H2/ Raney Ni or 1o amines
LiAlH4
Curtius degradation Acylazide NaOH 1o amines
Mannich Reaction N-substituted LiAlH4 2o amines
amides
Hinsberg's method benzene KOH monoalkyl benzene
sulphonyl sulphonamide
chloride
Cope reaction 3o amine oxide H2O2 or O3 or Caro’s Alkene
acid
Kolbe's method or RCOOK or - Alkanes
Kolbe's electrolysis RCOONa
Frankland's reaction Alkyl halide Zn; Ether Alkanes
From Grignard RMgX water or ammonia or Alkanes
reagents alcohol or amines

32
Retropinacol Alcohol Conc. H2SO4 Alkene

rearrangement
(Wagner
rearrangement)
Birch redudion Alkynes Li, Na/ Liquid NH3 Trans-alkene
Wittig reaction aldehydes and alkylidene (methylene) Alkenes
ketones triphenyl phosphorus
{(C6H5)3P=CH2}
Peterson reaction Z- alkene BF3; Ether; KH; E-alkene
Tertahydro furan
(THF)
Sabatier-Senderen's Alkenes Ni, Pt, Pd or Rh Alkanes
reaction
Sandmeyer reaction Aniline HX; NaNO2; aq. Phenol or
H2SO4 or CuCl2 in HCl chlorobenzene
Gattermann-Koch Benzene anhydrous AlCl3 Aldehyde
synthesis
Blance reaction Benzene anhydrous AlCl3 Benzyl chloride
Von Richter reaction KCN; C2H5OH
Ulmann biaryl Iodobenzene Cu Diphenyl

synthesis
Hunsdieeker's CCl4 bromobenzene
reaction
Raschig method Benzene Cu2Cl2 Cholrobenzene

Fischer Esterification Acetic acid and Conc. H2SO4 Ethyl acetate
Reaction ethyl alcohol
Gabriel Phthalimide KOH; C2H5X; HCl 1o amine
Synthesis
Etard reaction Toluene CCl4 or CS2 Benzaldehyde

Perkin reaction Aromatic HCOONa or HCOOK α, β- unsaturated
aldehyde aromatic acid
Diels-Alder reaction Diene - benzene
Woodward reaction Alkenes I2; AgOAc; H2O Diols
Curtius Acyl azide ROH; H2O; R’NH2 1o amine, Carbamate,
rearrangement Urea
Willgerodt Acetophenone Sulphur; Pyridine and 2-phenylacetamide
rearrangement conc. NH4OH
Darzens glysidic Ketone or NaOEt α,β-epoxy ester
ester synthesis aldehyde

33
Robinson annulation Methyl vinyl KOH or C2H5OH α, β-unsaturated cyclic

ketones ketones
Pfitzner –Moffatt 1o or 2o alcohol dimethyl Aldehydes or ketone
oxidation sulfoxide (DMSO)
and dicyclohexylcarbo
diimide (DCC)

34
DIGESTER : INORGANIC CHEMISTRY DIGESTER
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
DIGESTER -36
FEATURES OF INDIAN PHARMACOPOEIA
First pharmacopoeia publishes as “Bengal pharmacopoeia” in 1844.

First Indian Pharmacopoeia Committee in 1948, Chairman – Dr. B. N. Ghosh.
EDITION SUPPLEMENT FEATURES
1 - 1955
st 1960  Covers 986 monographs
 Titles of monograph in Latin language
 Weight and measure in metric system
2 - 1966
nd 1975  Titles of monograph in Latin language to English
 Name of drugs first came
 New analytical technique added
3rd – 1985 1989 and 1991  Dissolution technique had been added
(2 Volume)  Microbial limit test prescribed for liquid preparation.
 Flame photometry electrophoresis, flurometry added
4 - 1996
th 2000, 2002  Computer generated formulae are used
(2 Volume) and 2005  IR and UV spectrophotometry test added
 Contain 1149 monographs and 123 appendices
5 2007
th - 2008  Volume one contain general notice, structure of IPC
(3 Volume) Volume two three contain general monographs
6 – 2010
th 2012  Products of biotechnology, herbal products added.
(3 Volume)  Antiretroviral drug are added
7 – 2014
th 2015 and 2016  Contain 2567 monographs
(4 Volume)  Radiopharmaceutical monographs are added
8 – 2018
th 2019  General chemical test and TLC eliminated
(4 Volume) More specific test like IR, UV Spectrophotometer are
added
 Pyrogen test replaced by Bacterial Endotoxin Test
DIGESTER -37
SOURCE OF IMPURITIES
Raw Materials Pharmaceutical substances are either isolated from natural sources or
synthesized from chemical starting materials which have impurities.
Method of Reagents employed in the Calcium carbonate contains ‘soluble
Manufacture manufacturing process alkali’ as impurity
Regents used to eliminate Barium is used to remove sulphate from
other impurities potassium bromide, (barium) as
impurity at the end of process.
Solvents Water as solvent, it cotains Ca2+ Mg2+ ,
Na+ ,
35
Manufacturing Particulate matter Accidental introduction of dirt or glass,

hazards porcelain, plastic or metallic fragments
Cross-contamination of the By air-born dust
product
Contamination by microbes Bacteria, fungi, Algae etc can
contaminate the final product
Errors in the manufacturing An error on the efficiency of mixing,
process filling, tabletting, sterilization
Instability of Chemical instability Chemical decomposition
the product Changes in physical Changes in crystal size and shape,
properties sedimentation, agglomeration and
caking of the suspended particles
Reaction with container Reaction between the container
material material and the content.
DIGESTER -38
LIMIT TEST
Limit test is defined as quantitative or semi quantitative test designed to identify and control
small quantities of impurity which is likely to be present in the substance.
SUBSTANCE PRINCIPAL REACTION RESULT
Chloride Chloride ion Produces silver
reacts with silver chloride as white
nitrate in the precipitate.
presence of dilute opalescence
 
nitric acid. Cl  AgNO 3 dil.HCL
 AgCl   NO 3 produce in sample
 Chloride ion (Silver Nitrate) (White Pr ecipitate)
(Siver Chloride)
solution should
not be greater
than standard
solution
Sulphate Sulphate ion Turbidity of test
reacts with solution is less
barium chloride than that of
in the presence of SO  BaCl  dil. HCl
 BaSO4  2Cl   standard solution
4 2
dilute (Sulphate
ion)
(Barium
Chlride)
(Barium
Sulphate)
(Chloride ion)
the compound will
hydrochloric acid pass the limit test
and produces of sulphate.
barium sulphate.
Iron Iron Interact with The purple color
CH S OOC
Thioglycolic acid Fe + 2CH S 2+
2
Citric acid 2
2+ Fe produce in sample
Ammonical alkaline
in the presence of COOH Solution COO 2 CH S solution should
(Ferrous (Thyoglycolic (Ferrous
citric acid and ion) acid) glycolate) not be greater
ammonical (Purple coloured than standard
Complex)
alkaline solution. solution.

36
Arsenic Reaction of The yellow stain

Re duction KI
Apparatus arsenic gas with H3 AsO4  H2 arsnol
 H3 ASO3  H2O developed in the
used → hydrogen ion to ( Arsenic
acid )
( Arsenous
acid ) test solution is
Gutzeit's form yellow stain compared with
apparatus on mercuric H3 AsO4 
Reduction
 AsH3  3H2O that of stand and if
chloride paper in (Arsenic
acid )
( Arsenous
gas ) the stain is less,
presence of then it passes the
reducing agents 2AsH3  HgCl2   Hg(AsH2 )2  2HCl limit test of
(Arsenic (Mercuric (Yellow
like potassium acid) Chloride) stain)
arsenic.
iodide.
Lead Lead nitrate Test solution is
reacts with compared with
hydrogen than that of
sulphide in the standard solution.
presence of acidic If the turbidity is
medium less, then it passes
produces lead the limit test of
sulphite which is lead
black colour
precipitate.
Heavy Reaction between These remain
metal heavy metal and distributed in
hydrogen colloidal state and
sulphide in acidic produce brownish
medium to colour.
produce metal
sulphide as per
reagent.
DIGESTER -39
ACID AND BASE
ACIDS BASES
Definition An acid is a substance that can A base is a substance that can release a
release ion (H+) when dissolved hydroxyl ion (OH-) when dissolve in
in water. water. Base converts red litmus paper
Acid converts blue litmus paper to blue having the pH >7.
to red having the pH <7.
Example: HCl  H+ + Cl- Example: NaOH  Na+ +OH-
Arrhenius An Acid is a substance that A base is a substance that dissociates to
concept dissociated completely to give give hydroxyl ions when dissolved in
hydrogen ions when dissolved water.
in water. Example: NaOH + Water ⇆ Na+(aq)+
Example: HCl+ Water ⇆ H+(aq) OH- (aq)
+ Cl- (aq)

37
Bronsted An acid is proton donor. A base is proton acceptor.

Lowry Example: HCl → H+ + Cl- Example: NH3+ H+  NH4
concept
Lewis An acid is any species that can Base is any species that can donate an
concept accept an electron-pair to form a electron-pair to form a coordinate
coordinate bond. bond.
Example : Ag+, Fe+, Zn2+, Na+, Al3+ Example : NH3, H2O, OH- Cl-
DIGESTER -40
CONJUGATED ACID AND BASE
CONJUGATED ACID CONJUGATED BASE

Conjugated acid is the substance which can Conjugated base is the substance which
be formed by the loss of a proton. can be formed by the gain of a proton.
Acid Conjugate base Base Conjugate acid
H2F + HF NH3 NH4+
H2SO4 HSO4- OH− H2O
HNO3 NO3− CH3NH2 CH3NH3+
H3O + H2O C6H5NH2 C6H5NH3+
Henderson- Hassel Balch Application of Henderson- Hassel Balch equation

equation 1. Calculating pH of a Solution using pKa
log  A -  2. Calculating the Ionized/Unionized Concentrations of
pH =pKa+ Chemicals
HA 
3. Calculating pKa of a Molecule using pH
DIGESTER -41
pH AND pOH
pH pOH
It is negative logarithm (to the base Negative logarithm (to the base 10) of
10) of hydrogen ion concentration. hydroxyl ion concentration.
Expressed by: pH = -log [H+] Expressed by: pOH = -log [OH-]
Also known as sorensen scale.
[H+] (mol dm-3) pH [OH-](mol dm-3) pOH Acidity, Basicity
100 0 10-14 14 ↑Increasing acidity
10-4 4 10-10 10
10-7 7 10-7 7 Neutral
10-10 10 10-1 1 ↑Increasing basicity
10-14 14 10-0 0

38
DIGESTER -42
BUFFERS
ACIDIC BUFFER BASIC BUFFER NEUTRAL BUFFER

Definition Combination of weak acids Combination of weak The solution having a
and its salt with a strong base and salt with a mixture of weak base
Base i.e. Weak acid and salt strong acid. i.e. and its salt.
with strong base (Conjugate Weak base and salt
base). with strong acid
(Conjugate acid).
Example Mixture of Acetic acetic Mixture of Mixture of acidic
and Sodium acetate ammonium acid and
hydroxide and ammonium
ammoium chloride hydroxide.
DIGESTER -43
MAJOR EXTRA AND INTRACELLULAR FLUIDS
MAJOR EXTRACELLULAR FLUID MAJOR INTRACELLULAR FLUID

Na+ → 142 mEq/l K+ → 140 mEq/l
Cl– → 103 mEq/l PO24 → 75mEq/l
HCl 3 → 28mEq/l Mg+ → 58 mEq/l
Ringer solution Compound sodium chloride solution (I.P.) It is a sterile solution of

NaCl having not less than 0.82g and not more than 0.909 of NaCl.
Composition :-
NaCl → 0.82 - 0.90g
KCl → 0.28 - 0.031g
CaCl2 → 0.03-0.036g
Oral rehydration Reduced Osmolarity gm/ltr Reduced m/mol liter
salt ors Osmolarity ors
(ORS) Sodium chloride 2.6 Sodium 75
Glucose, Anhydrous 13.5 Chloride 65
Potassium chloride 1.5 Glucose, 75
Tri sodium dihydrate 2.9 Anhydrous 20
10
Potassium
Citrate
Total weight 20.5 Total Osmolarity 245
Ringer Injection It contains :-
0.82% w/v - 0.90% w/v of NaCl
0.028% w/v - 0.0315% w/v of KCl
0.03% w/v - 0.036% w/v of CaCl2

39
DIGESTER -44
DENTAL PRODUCT
DENTRIFICES OR CLEANING AGENT

Calcium carbonate Sodium Dicalcium phosphate
metaphosphate
Chemical CaCO3 (NaPO3 )n where n CaHPO4
formula may be 2 or more
Preparation CaCl2 + Na2CO3 → NaH2PO4→ NaPO3 CaCl2 + Na2+HPO4 →
CaCO3 + 2NaCl + H2O CaHPO4 + 2NaCl
Use Polishing agent cleanning Calcium replenisher
polishing agent and dietary supplement
ANTICARIES AGENTS
A small quantity (1ppm) of fluoride is necessary to prevent caries.
A 2% aq. Solution of Sodium fluoride is used topically.
Sodium fluoride Sodium mono Stannous fluoride
fluorophosphate
Chemical NaF Na2PO3F SnF2
formula
Preparation HF+NaOH→ NaF+H2O SnO+2HF→ SnF2 + H2O
Use used in preparation Fluoride Prevention of dental
of a tooth paste supplement of carries
diets
DESANSITIZERS ALVEOLAR Clove oil

Zinc chloride Strontium chloride ANALGESIC
Formula Zncl2 SrCl2 MOUTH Hydrogen
Use Antiseptic Used as a tooth paste WASHES peroxide
astringent for relief of dental ORAL Hydrogen
hypersensitivity ANTISEPTIC peroxide
sodium
perborate
DIGESTER -45
GASTROINTESTINAL AGENT
ANTACIDS
CHEMICAL FORMULA PREPARATION USE
Sodium NaHCO3 NH3 + CO2+H2O→ Used as an
bicarbonate NaHCO3 electrolyte
(Baking soda, replenisher
mitha soda)
Calcium CaCO3 CaCl2 + Na2CO3 → Used as fast antacid
carbonate CaCO3 + 2NaCl in calcium
(precipitated deficiency
chalk)

40
Aluminium Al(OH)3 AlCl3 + 3Na4OH → Used in treatment

hydroxide gel Al(OH)3 + 3NH4Cl of peptic ulcer,
Constipative in
nature
Aluminium AlPO4 AlCl3 + Na3PO4 Used as an
Phosphate → AlPO4 ↓ + PO3 adsorbent for
(phosphagel) bacterial toxoid
Mg trisilicate 2MgO.3SiO2.xH2O Na2O.SiO2 + MgSO4 (2 : Food additive
3)) good acid
→ Mg. SiO2 + Na2SO4→ neutralizing
Magnesium silicate properties
Magnesium MgO (MgCO3)2Mg(OH)25H2O Antacid and laxative
oxide → MgO + Co2 + H2O
(Magnesia)
Magnesium MgCO3 MgSO4 + Na2CO3 → mild laxative
carbonate Na2SO4 + MgCO3
Magnesium Mg(OH)2 Mg2+ + 2OH → Mg(OH)2 Laxative to relive
hydroxide constipation
(milk of
magnesia)
PROTECTIVE AND ADSORBENTS
Bismuth (BiO)2CO3 - Protective in lotions
subcarbonate and ointments
Bismuth Bi(OH)2C7H5O5 - Astringent and
subgallate protective
Kaolin Hydrated - Protective in lotions
aluminium silicate and ointments
SALINE CATHARTICS
Magnesium MgSO4.7H2O MgO + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + Saline laxative
sulphate H2O treatment of Mg
(Epsom salt) deficiency
Sodium C4H4KnaO6.4H2O KHC4H4O6 +Na2CO3→ Saline purgative
potassium C4H4O6KNa·4H2O food additive
tartrate
(Rochelle’s salt)
Disodium Na2HPO4.12H2O 2NaOH + H3PO4 → Pharmaceutical Aid
hydrogen NaHPO4 + 2H2O and saline
phosphate cathartics
(Phosphor buffering agent
soda)

41
DIGESTER -46
EXPECTORANT AND EMETICS
EXPECTORANTS
CHEMICAL FORMULA PREPARATION USE
Ammonium NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl Used as nitrogen
chloride NH4Cl source in
(Amchlor) fertiliser
Potassium iodide KHCO3 + HI → KI + Used as
H2CO3 ingredient of
KI
expectorant
mixture
Sodium potassium KHC4H4O6 +Na2CO3 Used as laxative
tartrate → used in process of
C4H4NaKO6.4H2O
(Rochelle’s salt) C4H4O6KNa·4H2O silvering of
mirrors
EMETICS
Antimony Emetic
potassium tartrate C4H4O7SbK.1/2H2O treatment of
schitomiasis
Copper sulphate 2Cu + 2H2SO4 + O2 Emetics
(blue vitriol, → 2CuSO4 + used as germicide
bluestone, vitriol CuSO4.5H2O 2H2O
of copper)
Sodium chloride NaCl 2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl Used as table salt
DIGESTER -47
ANTIMICROBIAL AGENT
ANTIMICROBIAL AGENT
CHEMICAL FORMULA USE
Borax Na2B4O7.10H2O Use externally for eye wash
Boric acid H3Bo3 Antiseptic for minor burns
Hydrogen peroxide H2O2 Antiseptic and a germicide
Potassium KMnO4 Treatment of urethritis
permanganate
Bleaching powder Ca(ClO)2 Used as sanitizer in swimming
pool
Iodine I2 Used as anti hyperthyroidism
Silver nitrate AgNO3 Antiseptic and germicide
Mercury Hg Pharmaceutical aid

42
DIGESTER -48
IMPORTANT TERMIOLOGY IN RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS
TERM DEFINITION EXAMPLES

Isotopes The atoms of the same element which have the
1
same atomic number but different mass 1 H , 12 H , 13 H
number
Isobars Atoms of different element having the same 40 40 40
mass number but different atomic number 18 Ar, 19 K, 20 Ca
Isotones Atoms of different element containing the same
39 40
number of neutrons but different number of 18 Ar , 19 K
total nucleons
DIGESTER -48
UNITS OF RADIOACTIVITY
UNIT DESCRIPTION
Rutherford (Rd) Amount of a radioactive substance which undergoes 106 dps
Roentagen (R) Unit of exposure, 1R = 2.58 × 10-4 CKg-1
RAD Unit of abosrbed dose, 1rad = 10-2 JKg-1
Bacquerel (Bq) One disintegration per second
DIGESTER -49
NATURE AND TYPE OF RAYS
PROPERTY α-rays β-rays -rays

1. Nature Each particle carry β -particle carry one These rays are
two units of Positive unit of negative charge. neutral i.e. do not
a) Charge
charge. carry charge.
b) Mass Each particle has a Each particle has a The particle of these
mass of 4 a.m.u. mass of 5.5 x 10-4 a.m.u. rays has negligible
mass.
c) Nature Helium nuclei or He2+ Electron
2. Velocity 3 x 107ms-1 2.97 x 108ms-1 3 x 108ms-1
3. Penetration Small Large 100 times that of Very large -1000
power α-rays times that of α-rays
4. Ionizing High Low 1/100th of α-rays Very poor
power

43
DIGESTER -51
COMMONLY USED RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS
RADIO NUCLEOTIDE APPLICATION

 Ammonium Bromide (Br-82)  Extracellular water measurement.
Injection
 Calcium chloride (Ca-45/Ca-47)  Study of calcium metabolic disorders, bone
Solution cancer and other bone lesions.
 Chloromerodin Injection (Hg-  Scintillation scans of kidney.
197/Hg-203)
 (Cr-51) Chromatid serum albumin  Plasma volume determination and
injection placental localization procedures
 Chromic acid injection  Study of protein loss from GIT and Abn.
 Colloidal gold Injection (Au-198)  Scintillation son of liver, study of RES,
treatment of the carcinomas of pleural and
performed cavities.
 Cyanocobalamine (Co-57, Co-58,  Co-57/58 → Diagnosis of pernicious
Co-60) Capsules and Injection anemia.
Co-60 → Treatment of advanced stage of
cancer involving cervix, vagina uterus,
blade and mouth, tongue etc.
 Ferric chloride and citrate  Study of iron metabolism and RBC
(Solution and dry) Fe-59) formation.
 Indium chloride in chelate form  Brain and renal scans plasma volume
(In-113) Injection measurement.
 Iodinated (I-125) Serum Albumin  Determination of plasma volume, total
Injection blood volume, circulation time and cardiac
Iodinated (I-133) Serum Albumin output, localization of neoplasm of the
Injection brain.
 Potassium chloride (K-42)  Study of (K+) ion exchange
Injection
 Rubidium chloride Injection  Myocardial blood flow determination
(Rb-86)
 Selenomethionine (Se-75)  Pancreas of parathyroid gland scars.
 Sodium chloride injection (Na-24)  Study of Na+ exchange.
 Sodium fluoride (F-18)  Bone scanning and study of bone
metabolism
 Sodium iodine (I-125) solution  Thyroid scanning and study of thyroid
Sodium Iodine (I-181) capsules uptake
and solution.
 Sodium iodohippurate(I-131)  Renal surviving and study of renal fraction.
Injection
 Sodium phosphate (P-32) Solution  Treatment of polycythemia (over
production of RBC)
 Sodium Rose Bengal Injection  Livers on liver function test.
(I-131)

44
 Sodium sulphate (S-35) solution.  Extracellular flood volume determination

 Sodium-per-technate (Tc-99)  Brain scanning thyroid function test
Injection
 Technetium Sulphide (Tc-99)  Liver and spleen scars
Colloidal solution.
 Yb-169 DTPA  Brain scanning and determine action of
(Diethylenetriaminopenteacetate) GFR in kidney.
DIGESTER -52
LIST OF INORGANIC SUBSTANCES ALONG WITH CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND USES
INORGANIC SUBSTANCES CHEMICAL COMPOSITION USES

Antimony potassium Orally used emetic and
C4H4O7SbK. H2O treatment of kala-azar by
I.V.
Barium sulphate BaSO4 Radio - opaque contrasts
media for the X-ray
examination of GIT.
Borax Na2B4O7.10H2O Antibacterial
Boric acid H3BO3 Local anti-infective
Calcium carbonate CaCO3 Non-Systemic antacid
Calcium chloride CaCl2 Electrolyte replenishes
Calcium gluconate C12H2O11Ca.H2O Calcium replacer
Chlorinated lime Disinfection of water
Di-calcium phosphate CaHPO4.2H2O Source of Ca, P and diluent

m tablet
Ferrous sulphate FeSO4.7H2O Hematinic
Hydrogen peroxide H2O2 Oxidising agent
Light Kaolin Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O Adsorbent (GIT infection)
Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 Antacid and Laxative
Magnesium Oxide MgO Antacid
Magnesium sulphate MgSO4.7H2O Saline cathartic sedative
Magnesium trisilicate 2MgO.3SiO2.xH2O Antacid
Mercurous chloride HgCl2 Cathartic
Nitrous oxide N2O Gas
Phosphoric acid H3PO4 Pharmaceutical acid
Plaster of parish CaSO4. H2O Surgical acid
Potassium chloride KCl Electrolyte replacer
Potassium Citrate C6H5K5H2O Systemic alkalaniser
Potassium iodide KI Expectorant
Potassium permanganate KMnO4 Antiseptic, Oxidizing agent
Selenium Sulphate SiS2 Antidandruff
Silver nitrate AgNO3 Antibacterial
Sodium Acetate CH3COONa.3H2O Used for peritoneal dialysis
Sodium Benzoate C6H5COONa Preservative

45
Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3 Antacid

Sodium carbonate Na2CO3 Pharmaceutical acid
Sodium chloride NaCl Electrolyte replacer
Sodium Citrate C6H5Na3O7.2H2O Urinary acidifier
Sodium dihydrogen NaHPO4.2H2O Urinary acidifier
phosphate
Sodium Fluoride NaF To prevent dental caries
Sodium hydroxide NaOH Pharmaceutical acid
Sodium metabisulphite Na2S2O5 Antioxidant
Sodium nitrite NaNO2 Antidote in cyanide poison
Sodium potassium tartarate C4H4KNO6.4H2O Saline cathartic
Sodium thiosulphate Na2S2O3.5H2O Antidote in cyanide
poisoning
Starrous fluoride SnF2 Prevention of dental caries.
Strontium chloride SrCl2 Desensitizing agent
Talc 3MgO.4SiCl2.H2O Glidant in tablets filter aid,
used in dusting powder
Titanium dioxide TiO2 Topical protective
opacifying agent
Yellow mercuric oxide HgO Local antibacterial
Zinc chloride ZnCl2 Pharmaceutical acid
Zinc oxide ZnO Mild astringent
Zinc stearate (C17H35COO2)Zn Lubricant
Zinc sulphate ZnSO4.7H2O Astringent Antiseptic

46
DIGESTER : MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY DIGESTER
MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY
DIGESTER -53
DRUG AND STARTING MATERIAL AND SYNTHESIS
S.NO DRUG STARTING MATERIAL SYNTHESIS

1. Acetazolamide 5-amino-2-mercapto- 5-amino-2-mercapto-
1,3,4thiadiazole 1,3,4thiadiazole
2. Allopurinol Cyanoacetamide Cyanoacetamide + Formamide
HCl
3. Amodiaquine Paracetamol Paracetamol + 7-chloro-4-
amino quinoline + Diethyl
amine
4. Ascorbic acid Ribose Ribose
(Vit. C)
5. Aspirin Salicylic acid Salicylic acid + acetic anhydride
6. Atenolol Phenoxy acetamide Phenoxy acetamide +
Epichlorhydrine +
Isopropylamine
7. Amitriptyline Phthalic anhydride Phthalic anhydride +Phenyl
acetic acid + sod. acetate
8. Albendazole 4-merecapto 4-merecapto phenylacetamide
phenylacetamide + bromopropane
9. Acetazolamide Hydrazine hydrate Hydrazine hydrate +
Ammonium thiocyanate
10. Amiloride o – phenylenediamine o – phenylenediamine+
oxalaldehyde glyoxal
11. Benzocaine p-nitrotoluene p-nitrotoluene + Ethanol
12. Biotin (Vit. B7) Bisbenzyl succinic acid Bisbenzyl succinic acid
13. Bupivacaine α-picoline α-picoline + 2,6-dimethyl
aniline
14. Busulfan Methanesulphonyl Methanesulphonyl chloride
chloride +1,4-butanediol
15. Chlorambucil Phenylbutyric acid Phenylbutyric acid +
Dichloroethyl amine
16. Chloramphenicol p-nitrobenzoic acid p-nitrobenzoic acid + 1,3-
Propandiol
17. Chlorphenesin p-chlorophenol p-chlorophenol +
pchloropropan-2,3-diol
18. Chloroquine 7-chloro-4-amino 7-chloro-4-amino quinoline +
quinoline 1methyl-butyl + Diethyl amine
19. Chlorotrianisene Anisole Anisole + p-methoxy benzyl
chloride + Olefin
20. Chlorpheniramine p-chlorobenzyl chloride p-chlorobenzyl chloride +
Pyridine HCl + Copper chloride

47
21. Chlorpromazine 2-chloro phenothiazine 2-chloro phenothiazine + n-

propane + diethylamine
22. Chlorthalidone 3-amino-4- 3-amino-4-
chlorobenzophenone -2 chlorobenzophenone 2-
carboxylic acid carboxylic acid + Diazonium
chloride
23. Ciprofloxacin Cyclopropylamine Cyclopropylamine +
6fluoroquinoline + Piperazine
24. Clofazimine N-(4-chlorophenyl)- N-(4-chlorophenyl)-o-
ophenylene diamine phenylene diamine
25. Clotrimazole Triphenylcyanide Triphenylcyanide + Imidazole
26. Cortisone Sigmasterol Sigmasterol
27. Cyclizine, Benzhydryl chloride Benzhydryl chloride + N-
Meclizine, methylpiperazine
Buclizine
28. Cyclophosphamide 1,3-oxophosphorine 1,3-oxophosphorine +
Dichloroethylamine
29. Cyproheptadine Phthalic anhydride Phthalic anhydride + Phenyl
acetic acid + 4-chloro-1-methyl
piperidine
30. Carbamazepine 2-nitro benzyl chloride 2-nitro benzyl chloride+
Sodamide
31. Caffeine Urea Dimethyl urea + 2 Cyano acetic
acid
32. Cimetidine Ethyl 2-chloro Ethyl 2-chloro acetoacetate
acetoacetate
33. Chlorothiazide 3- Chloroaniline 3- Chloroaniline +
Chlorosulphonic acid
34. Clobazam N-(5-chloro-2- N-(5-chloro-2-
nitrophenyl)benenamine nitrophenyl)benenamine +
Ethyl 2-chloro carbonylacetate
35. Clonidine 3-Quinuclindinol 3-Quinuclidinol+ Benzilic acid
36. Captopril Methacrylic acid Methacrylic acid+ HCl
37. Dapsone p-chloronitrobenzene p-chloronitrobenzene
38. Diazepam 2-amino-5-chloro 2-amino-5-chloro
(other BZDs) benzophenone benzophenone
+ Hydroxyl amine + Ethanol +
Chloroacetylchloride + Acetic
acid
39. Dienestrol p-hydroxy p-hydroxy propiophenone +
Propiophenone Dienestrol dibenzoate +
Ethanol
40. Diethyl Piperazine Piperazine + Diethyl Carbamoyl
carbamazine chloride
41. Diethyl stilbestrol Anethole Anethole + HBr
42. Diphenhydramine Diphenylmethane Diphenylmethane + Bromine
43. Ethacrynic acid 2,3-dichloro phenoxy 2,3-dichloro phenoxy acetic
acetic acid acid
44. Ethambutol 2-amino-1-butanol 2-amino-1-butanol +
1,2-dichloroethane + NaOH

48
45. Ethinylestradiol Estrone Estrone

46. Ethosuximide Butanone Butanone + Ethyl cyanoacetate
47. Ephedrine Catechol Catechol + Chloroacetyl
chloride
48. Enalapril Alanine 2-Oxo-4phenylethylbutyrate +
L alanylproline
49. Famotidine Amidino thiourea Thiourea + 1,3 dichloroacetone
50. Furosamide 2,4-dichlorobenzoic acid 2,4-dichlorobenzoic acid +
Chlorosulfuric acid + ammonia
51. Fluoxetine Acetophenone Acetophenone+ Dimethyl
amine +Formaldehyde
52. Guanethidine Perhydroazocine Perhydroazocine +
Chloroacetonitrile
53. Glutethimide Benzyl cyanide Benzyl cyanide+ Potassium
Cyanide
54. Haloperidol p-chlorobenzophenone p-chlorobenzophenone +
Butyric chloride + Piperidine +
Benzoyl chloride
55. Haloperidol 1-Benzyl 4 piperidone 1-Benzyl 4 piperidone + (4-
Chlorophenyl) magnesium
bromide
56. Hydralazine o-aldehyde benzoic acid o-aldehyde benzoic + and
and hydrazine hydrazine
57. Ibuprofen Isobutylbenzyl chloride Isobutylbenzyl chloride +
Propionic acid
58. Imipramine 10,11-Dihydro-5-H 10,11-dihydro-5-H dibenz,[b-f]
dibenz,[b-f] azepine azepine
59. Indomethacin p-anisidine p-anisidine + Indole acetic acid
+ Benzoyl chloride
60. Isoniazid γ-picoline γ-picoline + 4-pyridine
carboxamide + Hydrazine
61. Isoxsuprine 4-hydroxy 4-hydroxy norepinephrine
norepinephrine
62. Ketoconazole 2,4-dichlorophenyl 2,4-dichlorophenyl bromide +
bromide Glycerine
63. Lignocaine 2,6-xylidine 2,6-xylidine + Methanol +
Diethylamine
64. L-Thyroxine L-Tyrosine L-Tyrosine
65. Levodopa 4-methylbenzene1,2 diol 4-methylbenzene1,2 diol +N-
bromosuccinimide
66. Labetalol Salicylamide Salicylamide + acetyl chloride
67. Mebendazole 4-chloro benzophenone 4-chloro benzophenone +
5methyl thiouronium
68. Melphalan L-phenyl alanine L-phenyl alanine
69. Mephenamic acid o-chlorobenzoic acid o-chlorobenzoic acid +
2,3xylidine
70. Mepyramine Benzyl chloride Benzyl chloride + p-methoxy
benzyl chloride

49
71. Methotrexate 2-methyl pteridine 2-methyl pteridine + PABA +

glutamic acid
72. Metronidazole 2-methyl-5- 2-methyl-5-nitroimidazole +
nitroimidazole ethylene chlorhydrin
73. Mephobarbitone Urea Urea + Ethy sulphate
74. Mefloquine 5-bromohexane 5-bromohexane and potassium
phthalimide
75. Minoxidil Ethylcyanoacetate Ethylcyanoacetate and
guanidine
76. Nalidixic acid 2-methyl pyridine 2-methyl pyridine +
Diethylethoxymethylmalonate
+ Ethyl iodide
77. Naproxen Naphthyl chloride Naphthyl chloride + Isopropyl
amine
78. Nicotine β-picoline β-picoline
79. Nifedipin o-nitro benzaldehyde o-nitro benzaldehyde + Methyl
acetoacetate + Ammonia
80. Neostigmine m- Nitroaniline m- Nitroaniline+ Ethylbromide
81. Nikethamide Nicotinic acid Nicotinic acid+ Ethyl alcohol
82. Naloxone Thebaine Thebaine + Hydrogen per Oxide
83. Nitrazepam 2-amino-5-nitro 2-amino-5-nitro benzophenone
benzophenone + Dioxane + Ammonia
84. Nitrofurantoin 1-amino hydantoin 1-amino hydantoin + 5-nitro-
2furaldehyde
85. Norepinephrine / Catechol Catechol + α-Haloacetophenone
Epinephrine
/Isoprenaline
86. Oxyphenbutazone Aniline or Diethyl butyl Aniline+ Sod. nitrite
malonate
87. Omeprazole o- phenylenediamine o- phenylenediamine + Sodium
Ethoxide
88. p-aminosalicylic acid 4-nitro-2-amino toluene 4-nitro-2-amino toluene
(PAS)
89. Pantothenic acid Formaldehyde Formaldehyde +
(Vit. B5) Isobutyraldehyde
90. Paracetamol p-amino phenol p-amino phenol + Acetic
anhydride
91. Phenobarbitone Benzyl chloride Benzyl chloride +
Diethyloxalate + Sodium
ethoxide
92. Phenoxybenzamine Phenol Phenol + Propylene oxide
93. Phenylbutazone Butamalonyl chloride Butamalonyl chloride
94. Phenytoin Benzophenone Benzophenone + potassium
cyanide
95. Pralidoxime α-picoline α-picoline
96. Primidone Phenylethylmalonamide Phenylethylmalonamide +
Formamide
97. Procainamide p-nitro benzyl chloride p-nitro benzyl chloride +
Diethyl amino ethylamine

50
98. Pethidine di-(2-chloroethyl) methyl Phenylacetonitrile +Nitrogen

(meperidine) amine or mustard
phenylacetonitrile
99. Phenacetin Aniline, Chlorobenzene, Aniline + Sulphuric acid +
p-nitro phenol potassium hydroxide
100. Pheniramine Phenylacetonitrile or Phenylacetonitrile+
Phenyl magnesium Bromopyridine OR
bromide Phenyl magnesium bromide +
Picolinaldehyde
101. Pilocarpine O-toluidine O-toluidine and 2-
bromopropionyl
102. Probenecid p-toluene sulphonyl p-toluene sulphonyl chloride
chloride
103. Procaine 2-chloroethyl p- 2-chloroethyl p-aminobenzoate
aminobenzoate + Diethylamine
104. Pentazocine 4-methoxyphenyl acetyl 4-methoxyphenyl acetyl
choride choride and 3-methylpent-
3eneamine
105. Promethazine Diphenyl amine Diphenyl amine+ Sulphur
106. Piroxicam Saccharin Saccharin + Methyl chloro
acetate
107. Pethidine Benzyl Chloride Benzyl Chloride +
(Meperidine) Diethanolamine
108. Progesterone Diosgenin Diosgenin
109. Propranolol α-naphthol α-naphthol + Epichlorhydrine +
Isopropylamine
110. Pyrimethamine Ethyl propionate Ethyl propionate +
pchlorophenylacetonitrile + Iso
amyl alcohol + Guanidine
111. Retinol (Vit. A) β-ionone β-ionone + Methyl vinyl lactone
112. Riboflavine D-ribose 3,4-dimethylaniline
113. Roxatidine 3-hydroxy benzaldehyde 3-hydroxy benzaldehyde and
piperidine
114. Salbutamol 4-hydroxy-3-hydroxy 4-hydroxy-3-hydroxy ethyl
ethyl benzaldehyde benzaldehyde + Tertiary butyl
cyanate + Acetic acid
115. Spironolactone Eplerenone Eplerenone
116. Sulfacetamide Sulfanilamide Sulfanilamide + Acetic
anhydride
117. Sulfalene 4-acetamido benzene 4-acetamido benzene sulfonyl
sulfonyl chloride chloride + 3-amino-2-methoxy
pyrazine
118. Sulfamethoxazole 3-amino-5- 3-amino-5-methyl-isoxazole +
methylisoxazole 4acetamido benzene sulfonyl
chloride
119. Sulphadiazine Guanidine or Benzene or Guanidine+ Formyl acetic acid
PABS

51
120. Sodium valproate 4-chloroheptane 4-chloroheptane + Potassium

cyanide
122. Terfenadine Azacyclanol Azacyclanol + 4-(tertiary butyl-
4chlorobutyrophenone)
123. Testosterone Sarsapogenin Sarsapogenin
124 Thiotepa Aziridine Aziridine + Trichloro
phosphine sulphide
125. Timolol 1,2,5-thiadiazole 3,4-dichloro-1,2,5-thiadiazole +
Morpholine
126. Tolbutamide p-toluene sulphonamide p-toluene sulphonamide + n-
butane
127. Triamterene 1,4,7-triamino pteridine 1,4,7-triamino pteridine
128. Trimethoprim 2,4-diamino pyrimidine 2,4-diamino pyrimidine +
3,4,5trimethoxy benzyl
chloride
129. Thyroxine Tyrosine Tyrosine
130. Tolazoline Phenyl acetonitrile Phenyl acetonitrile +Ethyl
alcohol
DIGESTER -54
DRUG ACTING ON AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
CHOLINERGIC DRUGS
1. DIRECTLY ACTING CHOLINERGIC DRUGS

a. Choline esters
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE
Acetylcholine
Methacholine
Carbachol
Bethanechol

52
b. Cholinomimetic alkaloids
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE

Pilocarpine
Muscarine
Arecoline
2. INDIRECTLY ACTING CHOLINERGIC DRUGS

a. Reversible cholinesterase inhibitors
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE
Physostigmine
Neostigmine
bromide
Physostigmine
bromide
Edrophonium
chloride

53
ANTICHOLINERGIC DRUGS
CLASSIFICATION
1. Solanaceous alkaloids and analogues
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE

Atropine
Scopolamine
(Hyoscine)
Homatropine
Ipratropium
bromide
2. Amino alcohol esters
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE

Cyclopentolate
Clidinium
Dicyclomine
Glycopyrrolate
bromide

54
3. Amino ethers
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE

Orphenadrine citrate
Benztropine
mesylate
4. Amino alcohols
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE

Biperiden
Procyclidine HCl
Trihexyl phenidyl
5. Amino amides
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE

Tropicamide
Isopropamide iodide

55
6 . Diamides
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE

Ethopropazine HCl
ADRENERGIC DRUGS
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON CHEMICAL STRUCTURES
1. Catecholamines
DRUG NAME STRUCTURES

Adrenaline
Noradrenaline
Dopamine
Isoprenaline
Dobutamine
2. Noncatecholamines
Amphetamine

56
Salbutamol
Naphazoline
Phenylephrine
Xylometazoline
Terbutaline
ADRENERGIC BLOCKERS
CLASSIFICATION
1. Alpha receptor blocking agents
a. Beta halo alkyl amines
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE
Dibenamine
Phenoxybenzamine
b. Imidazole derivatives
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE

Tolazoline
Phentolamine

57
c. Quinazolines
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE
Prazosin
Terazosin
Doxazosin
2. Beta-receptor blocking agents

a. -Blockers with membrane stabilizing activity and intrinsic sympathomimetic
property
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE
Oxprenolol
Pindolol
b. Specific -blockers
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE
Timolol
Nadolol

58
c. -blockers with membrane stabilizing activity
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE
Propranolol
d. -blockers with cardio selective action
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE
Acebutolol
Atenolol
Metoprolol
Esmolol
e. -blockers with -blocking activity
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE

Labetalol
Carvedilol

59
DIGESTER -55
AUTACOIDS AND RELATED DRUGS
CLASSIFICATION
1. H1-Antagonists with classical structures
a. Ethylene diamine derivatives
DRUG NAME AR1 AR2

Tripelennamine
Pyrilamine
Methapyrilene
Thonzylamine
Zolamine
b. Amino alkyl ether analogues
DRUG NAME AR1 AR2 R

Diphenhydramine -C6H5 -C6H5 -H
Bromodiphenhydramine -C6H5 -H
Br
Doxylamine -C6H5 -CH3
N
Carbinoxamine -H
Medrylamine -H

60

Clemastine
Diphenylpyraline
c. Cyclic basic chain analogues
DRUG NAME R1 R2
Cyclizine -H -CH3
Chlorcyclizine -Cl -CH3
Meclizine -Cl
Buclizine -Cl
d. Mono amino propyl analogues

i. Saturated analogues
DRUG NAME AR AR1

Pheniramine
Chlorpheniramine
Brompheniramine

61
ii. Unsaturated analogues
DRUG NAME AR AR1

Pyrrobutamine
Triprolidine
e. Tricyclic ring system or Phenothiazine derivatives
DRUG NAME R
Promethazine
hydrochloride
Trimeprazine
Methdilazine
ANALGESICS, ANTIPYRETICS, AND NSAIDS

CLASSIFICATION
1. Salicylic acid derivatives

O OH
Aspirin O
Sodium salicylate

62
Salsalate
Sulfasalazine
Diflunisal
2. p-Amino phenol derivatives

Phenacetin
Paracetamol
3. Pyrazolidine dione derivatives
DRUG NAME R R1
Phenylbutazone –H –C4H9
Oxyphenbutazone –OH –C4H9
Sulphinpyrazone –H –(CH2)2SOC6H5
4. Anthranilic acid derivatives
Flufenamic acid

63
Mefenamic acid
Meclofenamate
sodium
5. Aryl alkanoic acid derivative

a. Indole acetic acid
Indomethacin
b. Indene acetic acid

Sulindac
c. Pyrrole acetic acid

Tolmetin sodium
Zomepirac
d. Phenyl acetic (propionic) acid
Ibuprofen
Diclofenac

64
Naproxen
Carprofen
Fenoprofen
Ketoprofen
Flurbiprofen
Ketorolac
Etodolac
Ibufenac
6. Oxicams
Meloxicam
Tenoxicam
Piroxicam

65
7. Selective COX-2 inhibitors
Celecoxib
Rofecoxib
Valdecoxib
8. Miscellaneous: Nabumetone, Nimesulide, Analgin
Nabumetone
Nimesulide
Analgin

66
9. Drug used in gout: Allopurinol, Probenecid, Sulphinpyrazone
Allopurinol
Probenecid
DIGESTER -56
DRUGS ACTING ON ENDOCRINE
ORAL HYPOGYLCAEMIC DRUGS
Classification
1. Sulphonylureas
a. First-generation drugs
DRUG NAME R R1
Carbutamide –C4H9 –NH2
Tolbutamide –C4H9 –CH3
Chlorpropamide –C3H7 –Cl
Tolazamide –CH3
Acetohexamide –COCH3
b. Second generation drugs

DRUG NAME R R1
Glibenclamide
(Glyburide)
Glipizide

67
–CH3
Gliclazide
–CH3
Glibornuride
2. Biguanides
DRUG NAME R R1
Phenformin -H
Metformin -CH3 -CH3

Buformin -CH2CH2CH2CH3 -H
3. Thiazolidinediones (Glitazones)
DRUG NAME R
Pioglitazone
Rosiglitazone
ANTITHYROID DRUGS
CLASSIFICATION
1. Thioureylenes
a. Thiouracil derivatives
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE

Methylthiouracil

68
Propylthiouracil
b. Imidazoles
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE
Carbimazole
Methimazole
DIGESTER -57
DRUG ACTING ON PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
SKELETAL MUSCLE RELAXANTS

a. Glycerol mono-ethers and analogues
DRUG NAME R R1 R2
Mephenesin –CH3 –H –H
Mephenesin carbamate –CH3 –CONH2 –H
Guaifenesin –OCH3 –H –H
Methocarbamol –OCH3 –CONH2 –H
Chlorphenesin carbamate –H –CONH2 –Cl
LOCAL ANAESTHETICS
CLASSIFICATION
1. Benzoic acid derivatives

69
NAME R1 R2
Isobucaine –H
Piperocaine –H
2. p-Amino benzoic acid derivatives
NAME R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
Benzocaine –H –H –H –CH2–CH3 –
Butamben –H –H –H –(CH2)3 CH3 –
Procaine –H –H –H –CH2–CH2– –N(C2H5)2
Chloroprocaine –H –H –Cl –CH2–CH2– –N(C2H5)2
Tetracaine –C4H9 –H –H –CH2–CH2– –N(CH3)2
Butacaine –H –H –H –CH2–CH2–CH2 –N(C4H9)2
3. Anilide derivatives (2,6 Xylidine)
NAME R1 R2
Lidocaine/Lignocaine –CH3 –CH2–N(C2H5)2
–CH3
Mepivacaine
–H
Prilocaine
–CH3
Bupivacaine

70
DIGESTER -58
DRUG ACTING ON CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
SEDATIVE AND HYPNOTICS

Barbiturates  Barbiturates are further classified on the basis of duration of their action.
O
R5
6 N R
R5' 54 12 1
3
O N O
H
a. Short-acting barbiturates (less than 3 hr)
DRUG NAME R1 R5 R5’
Thiopentone –H –C2H5
(At C-2 = S instead of O)
b. Intermediate-acting barbiturates (3–6 hr)

Amobarbital –H –C2H5
Butabarbital –H –C2H5
Aprobarbital –H CH2= CH–CH2– (CH3)2CH–

Talbutal –H CH2= CH–CH2– CH3CH2CH(CH3)–
Butalbital –H CH2= CH–CH2– (CH3)2CHCH2–
Hexobarbital –CH3 –CH3
Pentobarbital –H –C2H5
Secobarbital –H CH2= CH–CH2–
Cyclobarbital –H –C2H5
Heptabarbital –H –C2H5
c. Long-acting barbiturates (6 hr or more than 6 hr)

Phenytoin –H –C6H5 –C6H5
Phenyl ethyl hydantoin –H –C2H5 –C6H5

71
Mephenytoin –CH3 –C2H5 –C6H5

Ethotoin –C2H5 –H –C6H5
Benzodiazepines
R1
R2
9 N1
8 2
3 R3
X 7 6 N
5 4
R2'
DRUG NAME R1 R2 R3 X R2’

Diazepam –CH3 =O –H –Cl –H
Oxazepam –H =O –OH –Cl –H
Chlordesmethyl –H =O –H –Cl –Cl
Fosazepam =O –H –Cl –H
Prazepam =O –H –Cl –H
Nitrazepam –H =O –H –NO2 –H
Nordiazepam –H =O –H –Cl –H
Nimetazepam –CH3 =O –H –NO2 –H
Flunitrazepam –CH3 =O –H –NO2 –F
Flurazepam –(CH2)2N (C2H5)2 =O –H –Cl –F
Quazepam –CH2CF3 =S –H –Cl –F
Halozepam –CH2CF3 =O –H –Cl –H
Temazepam –CH3 =O –OH –Cl –H
Lorazepam –H =O –OH –Cl –Cl
Clonazepam –H =O –H –NO2 –Cl
Doxefazepam –CH2OH =O –OH –Cl –F
ANTICONVULSANTS/ ANTIEPILEPTICS
1. Hydantoins

Phenytoin –H –C6H5 –C6H5
Phenyl ethyl hydantoin –H –C2H5 –C6H5
Mephenytoin –CH3 –C2H5 –C6H5
Ethotoin –C2H5 –H –C6H5

72
2. Oxazolidinediones

Trimethadione –CH3 –CH3 –CH3
(or) Troxidone
Paramethadione –CH3 –CH3 –C2H5
Malidione -CH2-CH=CH2 –CH3 –H
Dimidone –C2H5 –CH3 –CH3
3. Succinimides

Phensuximide –CH3 –H –C6H5
Methsuximide –CH3 –CH3 –C6H5
Ethosuximide –H –CH3 –C2H5
ANTIPARKINSONISM AGENTS
1. Anticholinergic agents
a. Piperidine analogues
DRUG NAME R1 R2
Biperiden
Cycrimine
Trihexyphenidyl HCl
b. Pyrrolidine analogues
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE
Procyclidine HCl

73
c. Phenothiazine analogues
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE
Ethopropazine HCl
Diphenhydramine
TRANQUILLIZERS/ ANTIPSYCHOTICS
CLASSIFICATION
1. Phenothiazine derivatives
NAME R2 R10
Propyl dialkylamino side chain
Promazine –H
Chlorpromazine –Cl
Triflupromazine –CF3
Ethyl piperidyl side chain

Thioridazine –SCH3
Mesoridazine O  SCH3
Propyl piperazine side chain

Prochlorperazine –Cl
Trifluoperazine –CF3 =
Perphenazine –Cl
Fluphenazine –CF3 =
Acetophenazine =

74
2. Thioxanthenes
NAME R1 X
Chlorprothixene –Cl –N(CH3)2
Clopenthixol –Cl
Flupenthixol –CF3 =
Thiothixene –SO2N(CH3)2
ANTIDEPRESSANTS
1. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)

DRUG NAME STRUCTURE
Isocarboxazide
Phenelzine
Tranylcypromine
Clorgyline
2. Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs)

a. Dibenzazepine
DRUGS NAME R R1 R2
Imipramine –H –H – CH3
Desipramine –H –H –H
Trimipramine –H –CH3 – CH3
Clomipramine –Cl –H – CH3

75
b. Dibenzo cycloheptane derivatives
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE

Amitryptyline
Nortryptyline
3. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

Citalopram(±) Isomer
Escitalopram (+) Isomer
Fluoxetine
Fluvoxamine
Paroxetine
Sertraline

76
OPIOID ANALGESICS
CLASSIFICATION
1. Morphine and its analogues
RO
O
N R"
R'O
DRUG NAME R R’ R’’
Morphine –H –H –CH3
Ethyl morphine –C2H5 –H –CH3
Codeine –CH3 –H –CH3
Heroin –COCH3 –COCH3 –CH3
Nalorphine –H –H CH2–CH=CH2
a. Hydromorphone derivatives
O
N R"
R'
O
Hydromorphone –OH –H –CH3
Oxymorphone –H –OH –CH3
Hydrocodone –OCH3 –H –CH3
Oxycodone –OCH3 –OH –CH3
b. Dihydromorphine derivatives
RO
O
N CH3
HO
DRUG NAME R
Hydromorphone –H
Oxymorphone –CH3

77
2. Meperidine analogues
R1
6
N1
2
5 3
4
R2 R3
DRUG NAME R1 R2 R3
Meperidine –CH3 –C6H5 –COO C2H5
Bemidone –CH3 –C6H4OH –COOC2H5
Properidone –CH3 –C6H5 –COOCH(CH3)2
Ketobemidone –CH3 – C6H4OH –COC2H5
Anileridine –C6H5 –COOC2H5
CH2 CH2 NH2
Fentanyl –H
Lofentanil –COOCH3
Sufentanil –CH2OCH3
Alfentanil –CH2OCH3
Diphenoxylate –C6H5 –COOC2H5
Loperamide –C6H5Cl –OH
3. Methadone analogues
DRUG NAME R1 R2 R3 R4
–COC2H5 -CH2CH(CH3)N(CH3)2
Methadone
–COC2H5 -CH(CH3)CH2N(CH3)2
Isomethadone

78
Dipanone –COC2H5
Phenadoxone –COC2H5
Propoxyphene –CH2-C6H5 –COC2H5 –CH(CH3)CH2N(CH3)2
4. Morphinan analogues
RO
N R"
R'

Levorphanol –H –H –CH3
Butorphanol –H –OH
Dextromethorphan –CH3 –H –CH3

5. Morphan analogues or benzazocine derivatives
DRUG NAME R R1
Pentazocine –CH2–CH=C(CH3)2 –CH3
Phenazocaine –CH2–CH2–C6H5 –CH3
Cyclazocine –CH3
Ketazocine =O
Metazocine –CH3 –CH3
NARCOTIC ANTAGONISTS
HO HO
HO
O O
N CH2 CH CH2 N CH2 CH CH2 O
N CH2
OH
O Allyl group HO Allyl group OH
O Cyclo propyl
Oxymorphone methyl
N-allyl normorphine Oxymorphone

79
CNS STIMULANTS
CLASSIFICATION
1. Psychomotor stimulants or central stimulants (sympathomimetics)
a. –Phenylethylamine derivatives (Amphetamine and related drugs)
DRUG NAME R R1 R2 R3 R4
Amphetamine(+) –H –H –H –H –H
Dextroamphetamine(+) –H –H –H –H –H
Methamphetamine(+) –CH3 –H –H –H –H
Phentermine –H –H –CH3 –H –H
Benzphetamine –CH3 –CH2C6H5 –H –H –H
Fenfluramine –H –C2H5 –H –H m-CF3
b. Methylxanthines
O R7
7
R1 1 6
5 N
N 8
2
4 9N
O 3N
CH3
DRUG NAME R1 R7
Caffeine –CH3 –CH3
Theophylline –CH3 –H
Theobromine –H –CH3
Etophylline –CH3 –CH2CH2OH
Proxyphylline –CH3
DIGESTER -59
CARDIOVASCULAR DRUGS
ANTIANGINALS
1. Calcium channel blockers

a. 1,4-Dihydro Pyridines

80
DRUG NAME R1 R2 R3 X
Amlodipine –CH2O(CH2)2NH2 –C2H5 –CH3 2–Cl
Felodipine –CH3 –C2H5 –CH3 2, 3–Cl
Nifedipine –CH3 –CH3 –CH3 2–NO2
Nitrendipine –CH3 –CH3 –C2H5 3–NO2
Nimodipine –CH3 –CH2CH2OCH3 –CH(CH3)2 3–NO2
Nisoldipine –CH3 –CH2CH(CH3)2 –CH3 2–NO2
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE
Isradipine
Benidipine
Nicardipine
b. Diphenyl alkylamines
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE

Verapamil
c. Benzothiazepine derivatives
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE

Diltiazem

81
ANTIHYPERTENSIVE DRUGS
1. Drugs acting on sympathetic system

a. Centrally acting drugs
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE
Clonidine
α-Methyldopa
Guanabenz
2. Calcium channel blockers
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE

Verapamil
Nifedipine
Diltiazem
Felodipine

82
Amlodipine
Nicardipine
Nitrendipine
3. Drugs acting on renin-angiotensin system

a. Drugs that block renin release Propranolol.
b. Drugs that inhibit angiotensin II  Saralasin.
c. Drugs that inhibit angiotensin II receptors.
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE
Losartan
Irbesartan
Candesartan
Telmisartan

83
Valsartan
d. ACE inhibitors
i. Sulfhydryl containing ACE inhibitors
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE
Captopril
ii. Dicarboxylate containing ACE inhibitors
DRUG NAME R1 R2 RING

Enalapril –CH3 –C2H5
Enalaprilat –CH3 –H
Lisinopril –(CH2)4NH2 –H
Ramipril –CH3 –C2H5
Quinapril –CH3 –C2H5
Trandolapril –CH3 –C2H5
Spirapril –CH3 –C2H5
Moexipril –CH3 –C2H5

84
4. Vasodilators
Sodium
DRUG NAME Hydralazine Minoxidil Diazoxide
nitroprusside
STRUCTURE
DIGESTER -60
DRUGS ACTING ON KIDNEY
DIURETICS
1. Non m er cu r i al d i u r et i cs
a. T h i azi de der ivat ives
DRUG NAME R1 R2
Chlorothiazide -H -Cl
Benzthiazide -CH2-S-CH2-C6H5 -Cl
Flumethiazide -H -CF3
b. Hydrothiazides
DRUG NAME R1 R2 R3
Hydrochlorothiazide -H -H -Cl
Bendroflumethiazide -H -CH2C6H5 -CF3
Cyclothiazide -H -Cl
Hydroflumethiazide -H -H -CF3
Cyclopenthiazide -H -Cl
Trichloromethiazide -H -CHCl2 -Cl

Buthiazide -H -CH2CH(CH3) 2 -Cl
Methyclothiazide -CH3 -CH2Cl -Cl
Polythiazide -CH3 -CH2-S-CH2-CF3 -Cl
85
c. Carbonic Anhydrase inhibitors

DRUG NAME STRUCTURE
Acetazolamide
Methazolamide
d. Pteridine derivatives and related compounds

DRUG NAME STRUCTURE
Triamterene
Amiloride
e. Sulphamoyl benzoic acid derivatives

DRUG NAME STRUCTURE
Furosemide
Bumetanide
Torsemide
Piretanide

86
f. Phenoxyacetic acid derivatives
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE
Ethacrynic acid
DIGESTER -61
DRUGS AFFRCTING BLOOD AND BLOOD FORMATION
ANTICOAGULANTS
 Anticoagulants are drugs that prevent the clotting of blood.
a. Coumarin derivatives
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE
Dicoumarol
Phenprocoumon
Warfarin
Acenocoumarol
b. Indandione derivatives
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE

Phenindione -C6H5
Anisindione
Brimonidine

87
ANTIHYPERLIPIDAEMIC AGENTS
CLASSIFICATION
1. HMG CoA—Reductase Inhibitors
DRUG NAME R1 R2 R3
Metastatin -H -H
Lovastatin -H -CH3
Simvastatin -CH3 -CH3
Pravastatin -H -OH
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE
Atorvastatin
2. Fibric acid derivatives
DRUG NAME R1 R2
Clofibrate -Cl -C2H5
Fenofibrate -CH(CH3)2
Ciprofibrate -H
Bezafibrate -H

88
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE

Gemfibrozil
DIGESTER -62
DRUGS ACTING ON DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
ANTIULCER AGENTS
CLASSIFICATION
1. Reduction of gastric acid secretion
a. H2-antihistamines
Nizatidine
Cimetidine
Famotidine
Ranitidine
b. Proton pump inhibitors

Omeprazole

89
Lansoprazole
Pantoprazole
Rabeprazole
DIGESTER -63
ANTIMICROBIAL DRUGS
ANTIBACTERIAL SULPHONAMIDES
CLASSIFICATION (ON THE BASIS OF THE CHEMICAL STRUCTURE)
1. N-1 Substituted Sulphonamides
DRUG NAME R R’
Sulphanilamide -H -H
Sulphapyridine -H
Sulphathiazole -H
Sulphacetamide -H -COCH3
Sulfadiazine -H
Sulphadimidine -H

90
a. Short-acting Sulpha drugs
DRUG NAME R R’
Sulphamethizole -H
Sulphasomidine -H
Sulfisoxazole -H
b. Intermediate-acting Sulphonamides
DRUG NAME R R’
Sulphasomizole -H
Sulphamethoxazole -H
c. Long-acting Sulphonamides
DRUG NAME R R’
Sulphamethoxy -H
pyridazine
Sulphamethoxy -H
diazine
Sulpha -H
dimethoxine
Sulphaphenazole -H
d. Extra-long-acting Sulphonamides
DRUG NAME R R’
Sulphalene -H
Sulphormethoxine -H

91
QUINOLONE ANTIBACTERIALS
Effective antibacterial quinolone derivatives
DRUG NAME X R6 R1 R7
Nalidixic acid -N -H -CH2CH3 -CH3
Norfloxacin -CH -F -CH2CH3
Pefloxacin -CH -F -CH2CH3
Ciprofloxacin -CH -F
Amifloxacin -CH -F -NHCH3
Sparfloxacin -CF -F
Lomefloxacin -CF -F -C2H5
Gatifloxacin -COCH3 -F
-LACTAM ANTIBIOTICS
CLASSIFICATION (BASED ON CHEMICAL STRUCTURE)

-lactam antibiotics
A. Penicillin

92
CLASSIFICATION
DRUG NAME R
Penicillin G
(Benzyl penicillin)
Penicillin V
(Phenoxy methyl penicillin)
a. Penicillinase-susceptible Penicillins
DRUG NAME R
Penicillin G
CH2
Penicillin-V
O CH2
Phenethicillin CH3
O CH
Oxacillin
N
O CH3
Methcillin OCH3
OCH3
Ampicillin
CH
NH2
Amoxicillin
HO CH
NH2
Cloxacillin Cl
N
O CH3

93
b. Aminopenicillins
DRUG NAME R
Ampicillin
Amoxicillin
CLASSIFICATION OF CEPHALOSPORINS
1. First-generation Cephalosporins
DRUG NAME R1 R2 R3
Cephaloridine -H
Cephalothin -H
Cephapirin -H
Cephalexin -CH3 -H
Cephaloglycine -H
Cefadroxil -CH3 -H
HO CH
NH2
Cefradine -CH3 -H
Cefazolin -H
2. Second-generation Cephalosporins
DRUG NAME R1 R2 R3
Cefamandole -H

94
Cefoxitin -OCH3
Cefuroxime -H
Cefaclor -Cl -H
Cefonicid -H
3. Third-generation Cephalosporins
DRUG NAME R1 R2 R3
Ceftizoxime -H -H
Cefotaxime -H
Ceftazidime -H
Ceftriaxone -H
Cefmenoxime -H
4. Fourth-generation Cephalosporins
DRUG NAME R1 R2 R3
Cefepime -H
Cefpirome -H

95
TETRACYCLINE ANTIBIOTICS
CLASSIFICATION OF TETRACYCLINE
1. Natural tetracyclines
DRUG NAME R1 R2 R3
Tetracycline -H -CH3 -H
Chlortetracycline -Cl -CH3 -H
Oxytetracycline -H -CH3 -OH
Bromotetracycline -Br -CH3 -H
Dexamethyltetracycline -H -H -H
Dexamethylchlortetracycline -Cl -H -H
2. Semisynthetic tetracyclines
Doxycycline -OH -H -CH3 -H
Minocycline -H -H -H -N-( CH3)2
Methacycline -OH =CH2 - -H
Meclocycline -OH =CH2 - -Cl
Sancycline -H -H -H -H
ANTILEPROTIC DRUGS
CLASSIFICATION
1. Sulphones
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE
Dapsone
Acedapsone
Solapsone sodium

96
Sulfoxone sodium
Gluco sulfone
sodium
Clofazimine
ANTIFUNGAL AGENTS
CLASSIFICATION
1. Antibiotics
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE
Amphotericin B
Griseofulvin
Nystatin

97
2. Azole antifungals
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE
Miconazole
Econazole
Ketoconazole
Clotrimazole
Fluconazole
Butoconazole
Bifonazole

98
ANTIVIRAL AGENTS
CLASSIFICATION
1. Nucleoside RT inhibitors
a. Purine nucleosides and nucleotides
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE
Aciclovir
Ganciclovir
Valaciclovir
Vidarabine
Penciclovir
Famciclovir

99
Abacavir
b. Adamantane amines
DRUG NAME R
Amantadine -NH2
Rimantadine -CH-NH2CH3
ANTIMALARIALS
CLASSIFICATION
1. Cinchona alkaloids
DRUG NAME R
Quinine –OCH3 (–) isomer
Quinidine –OCH3(+) isomer
(used as antiarrhythmic)
Cinchonine –H (+) isomer
Cinchonidine –H (–) isomer
2. 7-Chloro-4-Amino Quinolines

100
DRUG NAME R R1
Chloroquine -CH(CH3)(CH2)2-N(C2H5) 2 -H
Amodiaquine -H
Hydroxychloroquine -H
3. 8-Amino Quinolines
DRUG NAME R
Primaquine -CH(CH3)-(CH2)3-NH2
Pamaquine -CH(CH3)-(CH2)3-N(C2H5)2
Pentaquine -(CH2)5-NH-CH(CH3)2
phosphate
Isopentaquine -CH(CH3)-(CH2)3-NH-CH(CH3)2
Quinocide HCl -(CH2)3-CH(CH3)-N(C2H5)2
4. Acridine derivatives (9-amino acridine derivatives)
DRUG NAME R
Quinacrine -CH(CH3)(CH2)3-N(C2H5)2
Acriquine -(CH2)4-N(C2H5)2
5. Antifolates
a. Biguanides
DRUG NAME R R’
Proguanil -Cl -H
Chloroproguanil -Cl -Cl
Bromoguanil -Br -H
Nitroguanil -NO2 -H

101
b. Diamino pyrimidines
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE
Pyrimethamine
Trimethoprim
6. Sulphonamides and Sulphones
DRUG NAME R
Sulphadoxine
Sulfadiazine N
N
Sulfamethoxazole
Sulphalene
7. Miscellaneous drugs
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE
Mefloquine
Dapsone

102
Artemether,
Artemotil
Artesunate
ANTIAMOEBIC AGENTS
CLASSIFICATION
1. Mixed Amoebicides
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE
Metronidazole
Tinidazole
Ornidazole
ANTHELMINTICS
1. Benzimidazoles
DRUG NAME R
Albendazole -S-CH2CH2CH3
Mebendazole -COC6H5

103
DIGESTER -64
ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENTS
CLASSIFICATION
1. Alkylating agents
a. Nitrogen mustards
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE
Mechlorethamine
Ifosfamide
Cyclophosphamide
Melphalan
Chlorambucil
b. Alkyl sulphonate
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE
Busulfan -CH3SO2O(CH2)4OSO2CH3
c. Nitrosoureas
DRUG NAME R
Carmustine -CH2CH2Cl
Lomustine
Semustine

104
d. Aziridines
DRUG NAME STRUCTURE

Thiotepa
e. Folic acid analogues

DRUG NAME STRUCTURE
Aminopterin (R = H);
Methotrexate (R = CH3)
Azathioprine
Trimetrexate
2. Antibiotics
a. Anthracyclines
Daunorubicin -OCH3 -H -OH -H
Doxorubicin -OCH3 -H -OH -OH
Carminomycin -OH -H -OH -OH
Idarubicin -H -H -OH -H
Epirubicin -OCH3 -OH -H -OH

105
3. Plant products
a. Camptothecin Derivatives
DRUG NAME R R’
Camptothecin -H -H
Irinotecan -C2H5
Topotecan -CH2N(CH3)2 -OH

106
DIGESTER : PHARMACEUTICAL ANALYSIS DIGESTER
PHARMACEUTICAL ANALYSIS
DIGESTER -65
TYPES OF ERROR
Error is the difference between the true result (accepted true result) and the measured
result.
Determinate Determinate errors are caused by faults in the analytical procedure
Error or the instruments used in the analysis.
Determinate errors are systematic errors.
Indeterminate Indeterminate errors are not constant or biased. They are random
Error in nature and are the cause of slight variations in results of replicate
samples made by the same analyst under the same conditions
Gross Error Gross errors differ from indeterminate and determinate errors.
They usually occur only occasionally, are often large, and may cause
a result to be either high or low. They are often the product of
human errors.
Absolute error Absolute error = Observed value – True or most probable value
Relative error Relative error = Absolute error /True value1000 per thousand
DIGESTER -66
ACCURACY AND PRECISION
Accuracy Accuracy is the closeness of experimental value to the true value.

Precision Precision is the closeness of measurement from one another.
Reproducibility Reproducibility expresses the precision between laboratories
Repeatability Repeatability expresses the precision under the same operating
conditions over a short interval of time.

107
DIGESTER -67
PRECISION MEASURE
Mean or Mean is obtained by dividing the sum of a set of measurements by the

average or number of individual results in the set.
relative mean mean,m =
 Mn Where
deviation n
M is individual measurement
n is the total number of measure
Median Median is a about which all the other value are equally distributed.
Mean deviation Mean deviation of a single measurement is the mean of the
derivations of all the individual measurements.
d -=
 Mn - m 
N
d-= mean deviation
= Absolute value of the deviation of the Mnth number
Relative mean Relative mean deviation is the mean deviation divided by the mean.
deviation Relative mean deviation = mean deviation ×100
mean
Average d -
Average deviation D =
deviation n
d-= Average deviation
n = Total number of measurements
Standard
  Mn - m 
2
deviation s=
N
DIGESTER -68
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

108
REGION λ WAVELENGTH ν FREQUENCY (HERTZ)

Cosmic rays 10-9 nm
Gamma rays Below 1 Å 1020 to 10 24
X rays 1 Å to 10 Å 1018
U. V. rays Far 10 nm to 200 nm 1016
Near 200 nm to 400 nm 1015
Visible rays 400 nm to 800 nm 1014
Infra-red Near 0.8 µm to 2 µm
middle 2 µm to 15 µm 1012 to 1014
Far 15 µm to 1000 µm
Microwave 0.05 cm to 25 cm 1010 to 1012
Radio frequency Above 25 cm 106 to 1010
DIGESTER -69
CHARACTERISTICS OF WAVE
CHARACTERISTICS DESCRIPTION
Frequency Number of waves per unit time.
Expressed in cycle per second (cps)/Hertz/Fresnel
Wavelength Distance between two nearest parts of wave in the same phase
Expressed in nm/ A°/μm
Wave number Number of waves per unit length
Expressed in cm-1 or Kaiser
Max-Plank E = h.ν = h c/λ
Equation Where E = energy of photon ν = frequency
h = Plank constant (6.6 × 10–27 erg-sec)
c = velocity of light , λ = wavelength
DIGESTER -70
CLASSIFICATION OF SPECTROSCOPIC TECHNIQUES
PRINCIPLE SPECTROSCOPIC METHOD

Absorption of  Ultraviolet and Visible Spectrophotometry
Radiation  Infrared Spectrophotometry
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
 Electrons Spin Resonance (ESR)
 X-ray spectroscopy
 Atomic Absorption
 Colorimetry
Emission of  X-ray spectroscopy
Radiation  Atomic emission
 Fluorescence and phosphorescence
Spectrophotometry
 Ultraviolet and Visible Spectrophotometry
 X-ray spectroscopy

109
Refraction of  Refractometry and Interferometry

Radiation
Diffraction of  X ray
radiation  Electron Diffraction
Mass to charge  Mass Spectrometry
ratio
Scattering of  Raman spectroscopy
radiation  Nephelometry and Turbidimetry
Reflectance  Dynamic reflectance spectroscopy (DRS)
Rotation of  Polarimetry
Radiation  Optical rotary Dispersion
 Circular Dichroism
DIGESTER -71
ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUE AND MOLECULAR CHANGE
ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUE MOLECULAR CHANGES

NMR Spectroscopy Nuclei are oriented in magnetic field
Mass Spectroscopy Ionization of molecule/ fragmentation
IR Spectroscopy Vibration by light
Atomic emission Spectroscopy Light emission-excited electron
UV visible Spectroscopy Excitation of weakly bonded electrons
DIGESTER -72
SPECTROSCOPY AND THEIR PRINCIPLE
SPECTROSCOPIC METHODS PRINCIPLE

Absorption spectroscopy Measures the absorbance or percentage of transmittance
(ultraviolet, visible, radiation (of particular wavelength)
infrared)
Mass spectrometry Observe the position & intensity of signals in mass
spectrum causing the ionization of molecules
NMR spectrometry Observe the position & intensity line in NMR spectrum
when protons interact with EMR in radio frequency
region
Atomic absorption Measures the intensity of absorption when atoms absorb
spectrometry monochromatic light
X-ray spectroscopy Measure the position & intensity of spectral lines during
emission of X-ray spectrum by atoms under influence of
X-rays
Refractometry Measures the refractive index by causing refraction of
light by matter
Polarimetry Measure the optical relation by causing rotation of plane
polarized light

110
Fluorimetry Measures the intensity of fluorescence caused by

emission of electromagnetic radiation due to absorption
of UV radiation
Turbidimetry Measure the turbidity of a system by passing light beam
in a turbid media
Nephelometry Measure the opalescence of the media by reflection of
light by a colloidal solution
DIGESTER -73
SPECTROSCOPIC TECHNIQUES AND THEIR SOURCE OF RADIATION SOUCE
SPECTROSCOPY SOURCE OF RADIATION

Uv - visible  Deuterium lamp
spectroscopy  Hydrogen lamp
 Xenon arc lamp,
 Tungsten filament lamp,
IR spectroscopy  Nernst glower (Made up of with oxide of Zirconium oxide,
Yttrium oxide, Erbium, Thorium)
 Nernst glober
(Made up with Sintered silicon carbide)
 Mercury arc lamp
 Tungsten filament lamp
NMR spectroscopy  Radiofrequency source transmitter
Fluorescence  Low-pressure mercury vapour lamp
spectroscopy  High-pressure xenon arc lamp
ESR  Klystron oscillator
DIGESTER -74
SPECTROSCOPIC TECHNIQUES AND THEIR SOLVENTS
TECHNIQUES SOLVENTS
UV spectroscopy Ethanol, Methanol, Cyclohexane, Ether, Water
IR spectroscopy Cyclohexane, Xylene, Chloroform, Acetone, CCl4
Mass spectroscopy Methanol, Acetonitrile
NMR spectroscopy CDCL3, CCl4, DMSO4 , CS2 , D2O
ESR Methyl cyclohexane, Isooctane, Toluene

111
DIGESTER -75
SPECTROSCOPIC TECHNIQUES AND THEIR DETECTOR
SPECTROSCOPY DETECTOR MADE UP OF WITH

Barrier layer cell (photo Fe, Al, Se, Au, Ag metal
voltic cell)
Cathode: Photo-sensitive material like
Photo emissive cell sodium potassium or cesium
UV-Visible Anode: Straight wire made of nickel or
Spectroscopy platinum
Photo multiplier tube Consists of a photo emissive cathode
Thermo couple Bismuth and Antimony
Bolometer Platinum black
IR Spectroscopy Golay detector Xenon gas
Thermistor Oxide of Mn, Co, Ni
Pyroelectric Triglycerine sulphate used as medium
NMR Phase sensitive detector
ESR Silicon crystal
Geiger muller counter Argon gas, Xenon and Crypton gas
X-ray Proportionality counter NaF, p-cresol in xylene
Scintillation counter Gallium lithium
Semiconductors Silicon lithium
Faraday cup Metal cup
Mass Array detector
spectroscopy Electron multiplier
Charge detection
Fluorescence and Mercury vapour lamp
phosphorescence Xenon arc lamp
DIGESTER -76
ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUE AND THEIR REFRENCE STANDARD
ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUE REFERENCE STANDARD GRAPH

UV Spectroscopy Potassium chromate Absorbance v/s concentration
IR Spectroscopy Polystyrene film %transmittance v/s wave
number
NMR Spectroscopy Tetramethylsilane (for Radiofrequency absorption v/s
organic solution) Field strength
Silapentane ( for aqueous
solution)
Mass Spectroscopy Per fluoro kerosene Abundance v/s m/e ratio
ESR Spectroscopy DDPH (1,1diphenyl picryl Intensity v/s magnetic field
hydrazyl)

112
DIGESTER -77
UV -VISIBLE SPECTROSCOPY
Beer’s law Find relationship between transmittance and concentration of

medium
Lambert’s law Find relationship between transmittance and thickness of
medium
Beer Lambert law A = .Cl
Where,  = Molar absorption coefficient
C = Concentration
l = Thickness
Molar absorption  = A/ Cl
coefficient
Transmittance T = IT/ Io
Absorbance A = -log T
Specific absorbance Є = (A1cm1% × mol.wt)/10
Bathochromic lmax Towards to longer Wavelength
(Red shift)
Hypsochromic lmax Towards to shorter Wavelength
(Blue shift)
Hyperchromic Increases in the intensity
Hypochromic Decrease in the intensity
Isobestic point Every absorption curve which is contained in spectrum of
compound taken at different pH.
Chromophore Molecular group that absorb visible or UV light and imparts
colour to the compound. Example: Nitro group, Azo group
Auxochrome They do not have any characteristic absorption on their own but
can modify the absorption of chromphore.
Example: -OH, –OR, –NH2 , -NHR
K-Bands Originates due to ᴫ⟶ᴫ* transition in a compound with
conjugated ᴫ system
Very intense band with high εmax
Present in conjugated dienes like butadienes
R-Bands These are forbidden transitions, originates due to n⟶ᴫ*
Transition of electron of atleast one lone pair of electron on
hetero atom
Have very low εmax value , below 100
B-Bands Originates due to ᴫ⟶ᴫ* transition in aromatic or hetero-
aromatic molecules
E-Bands Originates due to electronic transitions in the benzenoid system
In cyclic conjugation, they shows two absorption bands in UV
spectra.
Energy value order σ → σ* ˃ n → σ* ˃ π → π * ˃ n → π*
for transition

113
DIGESTER -78
WOODWARD FIESER RULE
Homoannular diene: It is a cyclic diene having conjugated double bond in the

same ring.
Example:
Heteroannular diene It is a cyclic diene in which double bonds in conjugation are

present in different rings.
Example:
Endocyclic double bond A double bond present in a ring.

Exocyclic double bond A double bond in which one of the double bond is a part of a
ring system.
Exocyclic double bond
Example:
Endocyclic double bond

Ring A has one endocyclic
A B and one exocyclic double bond.
Ring B has only one endocyclic
double bond.
WOODWARD FIESER RULE FOR CONJUGATED DIENE, TRIENE SYSTEMS

Homoannular conjugated diene 253 nm
Heteroannular conjugated diene 214 nm
Acyclic conjugated diene 217 nm
Parent Values Acyclic triene 245 nm
Increment Each alkyl substituentor Ring residue +5 nm
Exocyclic double bond +5 nm
Double bond extending conjugation +30 nm
Auxochromes -Cl, -Br +5 nm
-OH/-OR/-SH +6 nm
-SR +30 nm
-NR2 +60 nm
-OCOCH3 +0 nm
Question: Calculate λmax Question: Calculate λmax
H 3C CH3
Parent value for Homoannular diene =
253 nm Two alkyl substituents = 2 × 5 = 10 nm
Two alkyl substituents = 2 × 5 = 10 nm Three ring residue = 3 × 5 = 15 nm
Two ring residue = 2 × 5 = 10 nm One exocyclic double bond = 5 nm
Total calculated λmax = 253 + 10 + 10 = Total calculated λ max = 214 + 10 + 15 + 5 =
273 nm 244 nm

114
WOODWARD FIESER RULE FOR α, β-UNSATURATED CARBONYL COMPOUNDS
Parent 215 nm
R = H (Aldehyde) 207 nm
Values X = OH, OR (Acid or Ester) 193 nm
X = alkyl (Ketone) or six membered ring 215 nm
Homoannular conjugated diene +39 nm
Increment Exocyclic double bond +5 nm
Double bond extending conjugation + 30 nm
Alkyl group α β γ /higher

-Cl +15 nm +12 nm +12 nm +12 nm
-OH +35 nm +35 nm +30 nm +50 nm
-SR - 85 nm - -
Auxochrome -NH2 - 95 nm -
-OCHCH3 +6 nm +6 nm +6 nm +6 nm
-Br +25 nm +30 nm +18 nm +31 nm
-OR +35 nm +35 nm +18 nm +31 nm
Question: Calculate λmax.
O
Parent value for β unsaturated 6 membered cyclic compound = 215 nm

One ring residue on α carbon = 10nm
Two ring residue on β carbon = 2 ×12 =24 nm
Double bond exocyclic to two (both) ring = 2 × 5 = 10 nm
Total calculated λ max = 215 + 10 + 24 + 10 = 259 nm
WOODWARD FIESER RULE FOR ACYL BENZENE DERIVATIVE

X = Alkyl 246 nm
Parent value X = OH/OR 230 nm
X=H 250 nm
Ortho Meta Para
Alkyl +3 nm +3 nm +10 nm
OH/OR +7 nm +7 nm +25 nm
Auxochrome Cl 0 nm 0 nm +10 nm
Br +2 nm +2 nm +15 nm
NH2 +13 nm +13 nm +58 nm
NHOCOCH3 +20 nm +20 nm +45 nm

115
Question: Calculate λmax. Question: Calculate λmax.

CH3 OH
O O
Br Br
Br OH
parent value for acyl benzene (Ketone) Parent value for aromatic carboxylic acid
derivative= 246 nm derivative = 230 nm
Br atom at para position = 15 nm Br atom at two ortho position = 2 × 2 = 4 nm
Total calculated λmax = 246 + 15 = 261 nm OH group at para position = 25 nm
calculated λmax = 230 + 04 + 25 = 259 nm
DIGESTER -79
INFRA RED SPECTROSCOPY
INFRA RED REGION

Near infrared 0.8 µm to 2 µm
(Overtone region)
Middle infrared 2 µm to 15 µm
(Fundamental region)
Functional region 2 µm to 8 µm
(1300 – 4000 cm-1)
Fingerprint region 8 µm to 15 µm
(650 – 1300 cm-1)
Far infrared (Rotational 15 µm to 1000 µm
vibration)
Vibrational frequency 1 k

2 c 
Where, = Frequency, = Wave number
C = Velocity of light, = Force constant of bond
DEGREE OF FREEDOM
Type of degree of Liner Non-liner
freedom
Fundamental 3n-5 3n-6
absorption band
Transitional degree of 3 3
freedom
Rotational degree of 2 3
freedom
Vibrational degree of 3n-5 3n-6
freedom
Total degree of freedom 3n 3n

116
TYPE OF VIBRATION
Stretching Bond length Symmetrical Two bends increase or decrease in
vibration altered. length symmetrically.
Asymmetrical Two bends increase or decrease in
length asymmetrically.
Bending Bond angle In plane bending Scissoring Bond angle decrease.
vibration altered. Rocking Bond angle maintained
but both bonds move
within the plane.
Out of plane Wagging Both atoms move to one
bending side of plane
Twisting One atom is above the
plane and the other is
below the plane.
DIGESTER -80
ABSORPTION PEAK WITH INTENSITY OF SOME SELECTED FUNCTIONAL GROUP
TYPES OF COMPOUNDS FREQUENCY RANGE CM-1

C-H stretching
Alkane 2850-2970
Alkene 3010-3095
Alkynes 3320-3310
Aromatic rings 3310-3100
Aldehydes 2900-2500
C=C & C=C bond stretching
Alkane 1680-1620
Alkynes 2300-2100
C=O stretching (Carboxyl)
Saturated aliphatic ketone 1750-1700
α, β unsaturated aliphatic ketone 1685-1660
Saturated Aliphatic Aldehyde 1740-1720
Α, β unsaturated aliphatic aldehyde 1705-1680
Aryl aldehyde 1700-1680
Saturated ester 1750-1735
Unsaturated ester 1730-1715
Saturated carboxylic acid 1725-1700
Unsaturated carboxylic acid 1715-1690
Aryl carboxylic acid 1700-1680
Amide 1680-1630
Imide 1700-1670
Lactam 1720-1660
Thiocyanate (C=S) 1200-1025
Sulphone (S=O) 1180-1140
Sulphonamide 1350-1300
O-H stretching (Hydroxyl)
Alcohol (OH) free 3650-3450
Hydrogen bonded 3570-3450
Sec Ter –OH bonding alcohol 1100-1050
117
N-H stretching (Amines)

Pri, sec, ter amines 3500-3400
N-H bending (Amines)
Pri, sec 1650-1550
C-N stretching
Aliphatic 1200-1000
Aromatic 1350-1250& 860
C=N nitrile 2280-2200
Halogens Compounds
Chlorides 800-600
Bromides 650-500
Iodides 600-500
Fluorides 1400-1000
DIGESTER -81
NMR SPECTROSCOPY
Fermions Odd mass nuclei with an odd number of nucleons have

fractional spins.
I = 1/2 ( 1H, 13C, 19F, 31P )
I = 3/2 ( 11B, 33S )
I = 5/2 ( 17O )
Gives NMR spectra.
Passes angular momentum.
Bosons Even mass nuclei with odd numbers of protons and
neutrons have integral spins.
I = 1 ( 2H, 14N )
I = 0 (12C, 16O, 32S)
Not gives NMR spectra.
Not passes angular momentum.
 g 
   
Larmor  2 
equation Where, g = Gyromagnetic ratio
B = Strength of magnetic field
Chemical shift A chemical shift is defined as the difference in parts per
million (ppm) between the resonance frequency of the
observed proton and Tetramethylsilane (TMS) hydrogens.
δ is dimensionless and expressed as ppm
Tetra methyl TMS is the most common Reference compound in NMR,
silane it is set at δ=0 ppm.
TMS is used as reference in proton NMR. Because
1. TMS has 12 equivalent protons.
2. Chemically inert and very low boiling point.
3. Miscible with all organic substances.
TMS is not soluble in aqueous solution hence 2, 2
dimethyl-2-2-silapentane-5-sulphonate used.

118
Shielding of High electron density around a nucleus shields the

protons nucleus from the external magnetic field and the signals
are up field in the NMR spectrum
DE shielding of Lower electron density around a nucleus Deshields the
protons nucleus from the external magnetic field and the signals
are downfield in the NMR spectrum
𝜏 = 10 – δ
δ = Chemical shift
DIGESTER -82
SOME COMPOUNDS WITH THEIR NMR SIGNAL
NAME OF COMPOUNDS NUMBER OF NMR SIGNALS

Acetone 01
1,2-dibromoethane 01
Cyclobutane 01
Ethyl chloride 02
Methanol 02
Isopropyl chloride 02
Tertiary butyl amine 02
1,1-dibromoethane 02
Methylene 02
Diethyl ether 02
Ethyl benzene 03
Diethyl succinate 03
Ethyl amine 03
2-propanol 03
n-propyl chloride 03
2-bromopropene 03
Vinyl chloride 03
1,2-dichloropropane 04
Methyl cyclopropane 04
Ethoxy acetic acid 04
Propyl formate 04
DIGESTER -83
ABSORPTION POSITION OF SOME PROTON
TYPE OF PROTON CHEMICAL SHIFT

HC CH 2 to 3
3 to 4
CH Cl
3.4 to 4
CH OH
3.3 to 4
CH O R

119
O 2 to 2.7
CH C OH
O 9 to 10
R C H
R NH2 1 to 5
DIGESTER -84
MASS SPECTROSCOPY
Molecular ion Ion formed from a molecule by removal of one electron of lowest
peak (parent ionization potential.
peak) Height of parent peak = Aromatic˃ Acylic ˃ Ketone ˃ Amine ˃ Ether ˃
Carboxylic acid
Base peak Most intense peak.
It is considered as 100%
Most abundant peak
Fragment ion The ions produced from the molecular ion by cleavage of bonds are
called fragment ions.
Metastable Mass spectrum of molecule shows sharp peaks at m/z integrals.
Ions
M+1 peak It occurs due to presence of C13 , H2 , N13
M+2 peak It occurs due to presence of O18 , S34 , l37 ,Br31
DIGESTER -85
TYPE OF MASS ANALYZER AND THEIR WORKING
MASS ANALYZER WORKING

Quadrupole Scan radio frequency field
Time Of Flight (Tof) Time Of Flight correlate directly to ion’s m/z
Magnetic Sector molecular ions are separated according to their masses
and collected
Double Focusing Magnetic differentiate the small mass differences of the fragment
Quadruple Ion Trap Scan radio frequency field
Ion Cyclotron Resonances Translate ion cyclotron motion to m/z
DIGESTER -86
TYPE OF IONIZATION SOURCE AND THEIR PRINCIPLE
IONIZATION SOURCE PRINCIPLE

Electron Impact (El) Electron transfer
Chemical Ionization (CI) Proton transfer
HPLC Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption (MALDI) Photon transfer
Fast Atom Bombardment (FAB) Ion desorption
Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Ionization(APCI) Corona discharge
Electrospray Ionization (ESI) Evaporation of charged droplet

120
DIGESTER -87
MC-LAFFERTY REARRANGEMENT REACTION
Mc-Lafferty rearrangement reaction - It involves the migration of γ-hydrogen atom

followed by cleavage of β-bond then rearrangement leads to the elimination of neutral
molecule. Elimination of neutral molecules from Aldehydes, Ketone, Amine,
Unsaturated compounds, Substituted aromatic compound etc takes place. The
rearrangement proceeds through a sterically hindered 6 membered transition state.
H H + +
: O: .O: O.
+
.
Molecular ion
DIGESTER -88
COUPLING CONSTANT
Coupling constant • Distance between two split lines.

• Expressed in Hertz.
• Ortho, meta, para-isomers are differentiated on the
basis of Coupling constant.
Compounds Coupling constant values
Anti 5 - 12
Gauche 2-4
Cis 6 - 14
Trans 11-18
Geminal protons 0 - 20
Vicinal protons 2 - 18
DIGESTER -89
INFORMATION FROM PMR
Area of Peak Number of absorbing protons giving rise to a signal

Intensity of Signal Relative number of protons of different kinds
Number of Signals Different sets of equivalent protons in molecule
Splitting or Environment of proton with respect to neighboring proton
Multiplicity of Signal

121
DIGESTER -90
X RAY
X ray was discovered by William K. Roentgen.

Nλ = 2d sinθ
Bragg’s equation Where,
N = integer
d = distance between crystal
θ = Angle of diffraction
X-ray technique Principle
X-ray absorption method Based on absorption of x-ray
X-ray diffraction method Based on scattering of x-ray
X-ray fluorescence method Based on emit x-ray of characteristic
wavelength
DIGESTER -91
COMPARISON OF ATOMIC ABSORPTION AND FLAME EMISSION SPECTROSCOPY
ATOM ABSORPTION SPECTROSCOPY FLAME EMISSION SPECTROSCOPY

Amount of light absorbed by ground state Amount of light emitted by excited atom is
atom is measured. measured.
Absorption intensity a. signal response Does Absorption intensity and signal response
not depend upon temperature. greatly influenced by temperature
variation.
Beers law is obeyed. Beer law is not obeyed.
Intensity of emitted radiation is directly Intensity of absorbed radiation is directly
Proportional to the number of atoms in proportional to the number of atoms in
ground state. excited state.
DIGESTER -92
COMPARISON OF NEPHELOMETRY AND TURBIDIMETRY
NEPHELOMETRY TURBIDIMETRY
Nephelometry deals with measurement of Turbidimetry deals with measurement of
Intensity of scattered light Intensity of transmitted light
In Nephelometry, the intensity of the Turbidimetric measurements are made at
scattered light is measured, usually at right 180o from the incident light beam.
angles to the incident light beam.
Similar to Fluorimetry because both Similar to Colorimetry because both
measure scattered radiations but elastic measure transmitted radiations but light
scattering in Fluorimetry while non-elastic intensity decreased by scattering in
scatter in Nephelometry. Turbidimetry while by absorption in
Colorimetry.
Low concentrated suspension High concentrated suspension

122
DIGESTER -93
COMPARISON OF FLUORESCENCE AND PHOSPHORESCENCE
FLUORESCENCE PHOSPHORESCENCE
Life time Short, < 10-5 Sec Long, Several Seconds
Electron spin No Yes
Excited states Singlet Triplet
Quantum yield High Low
Temperature Most Temperature Proffered in Low Temperature
DIGESTER -94
APPLICATION OF ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUE
TECHNIQUE APPLICATION
 Detection of impurities
UV VISIBLE  Structure elucidation of organic compounds
 Distinction between conjugated and non-conjugated system
 Identification of functional group
 Study of polymer
IR  Structure determination
 Distinction between inter and intramolecular H-bonding
 Study of keto-enol Tautomerism
 Identification of Geometrical isomer
 Detection of H-bonding
NMR  Detection of aromaticity
 Distinction between cis-trans isomer
 Detection of electronegative atom
 Molecular mass determination
 Identification of unknown compound
MASS  Drug metabolism study
 Clinical, toxicological and forensic application
 Presence of isotopes
AAS  It can be used to determine Al, Mg, Cu, Zn, Pub, and Ni.
 Estimation of trace elements in biological fluids (blood).
ESR  Study of free radical.
 Determination of reaction rate and mechanism.
 Study of inorganic compound.
X-ray  Determination of crystalline structure
 Determination of particle size
 Property of metal
Raman  Structure elucidation of molecules
spectroscopy  Presence of Tautomerism
 Study of ionic equilibrium and chemical bond

123
Nephelometry  Turbidimetric titration

Turbidimetry  Clinical immunology (Ag- Ab. detection, Determination of CSF,
Rheumatoid factor detection)
 Determination of hardness of water
 Analysis of sugar product
 Determining of concentration of smog, fog and aerosol.
Fluorimetry  Determination of Uranium in salt
 Determination of vitamin
 Fluorescence indicator
Eosin pH 3 to 4 (Colourless to green)
Fluorescein pH 4 to 6 (Colourless to green)
DIGESTER -95
ELECTRO ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUE
BASIC PRINCIPLE CONSTANT ELECTRODE

Conductometry Conductance V/S Conductance Platinum
volume of Titrant electrode
added
Potentiometry Potential V/S volume of Potential
Titrant added (No current
flow i.e., I = 0)
Polarography Current V/S Applied Half way potential Dropping
Potential mercury
Amperometry Current V/S volume of Conductance Rotating
Titrant added platinum
(V=Constant) electrode
DIGESTER -96
TYPES OF ELECTRODE
Reference electrode Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE)

Saturated Calomel Electrode (SCE)
Silver-Silver Chloride Electrode
Indicator electrode Metal indicator
Membrane Idicator Electrode
ELECTRODE SYSTEM AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION
Electrode System Construction
Ag/AgCl electrode Silver wire is coated with thin film of silver chloride and kept in
saturated solution of KCl.
Calomel ( (Hg/Hg2 Cl2 ) Solid mercury surrounded with Hg, Hg2 Cl2 Paste and kept in
electrode saturated solution of KCl.
Glass electrode Most widely used H+ ion sensitive electrode used in pH meter.
Standard Hydrogen It is a primary reference electrode. It consists of Pt electrode
electrode (SHE) immersed in a solution whose hydrogen ion activity is 1.0 and
in which H2 gas is Bubbled at 1 atm Pressure.

124
DIGESTER -97
THERMO ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUE
METHODS PARAMETER MEASURED GRAPH

Differential thermal analysis (DTA) Temperature difference ∆T v/s temp.
Differential scanning Colorimetry Enthalpy dH/dt v/s temp.

(DSC)
Thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA) Mass Mass v/s temp.
Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) Deformation -
Dielectric thermal analysis (DETA) Deformation -
Evolved gas analysis (EGA) Gaseous decomposition Thermal
conductivity v/s
temp.
Thermo-optical analysis (TOA) Optical properties -
DIGESTER -98
TYPE OF TITRATION
TITRATION DESCRIPTION APPLICATION

Neutralization in which  To analyses mixture of acids
Acid base titration titrant is delivered into an  To control acidity or alkalinity
analyte until the unknown
solution is completely
neutralized.
Titration of oxidizing  Determine oxidation state of element
agent by reducing agent  Quantitative determination of metal
Redox titration or titration of reducing Ca, Mg, Zn, Co, Ni
agent to oxidizing agent.
Complexometric Titration of metal ions Determination of hardness of water
titration with a complexing agent
or chelating agent.
Appearance or  Measurement of concentration of
disappearance of chlorine in water
elementary iodine  Analysis of hydrogen peroxide
Iodimetry titration indicates end point.
Iodimetry – Titration with standard solution of iodine.
I2 + 2S2O3-2 → S4O62-
Iodometry – Titration in which iodine is liberated in with chemical
reaction. Br2 + 2I- → 2Br - + I2

125
One product is a  To determine electrode potential

precipitated.  For determination of chloride,
(Known as Argentometric cyanide and thiosulphite
titration)
Mohr titration Titration of sodium chloride with
standard silver nitrate in neutral solution
giving a precipitate of red silver chromate
at the end point.
Ag+ + Cl- → AgCl ↓
Precipitation titration 2Ag+2 + CrO-4 (Red colour precipitate)
Fajan titration Involve titration of NaCl with standard of
silver nitrate using adsorption indicator.
Adsorption indicator are: Fluorescein,
Eosin
Volhard’s titration AgNo3 + NH4SCN → AgSCN + NH4NO3
NH4SCN + Fe2(SO4)3(NH4)S04 → Fe [
Fe(SCN)6] ↓ (Red colour complex
indicate end point)
DIGESTER -99
INDICATORS FOR ACID BASE TITRATION
COLOUR ON COLOUR ON
INDICATOR PH RANGE OF
ACIDIC SIDE BASIC SIDE
Methyl Violet 0.0 to 1.6 Yellow Violet
Bromophenol Blue 3.0 to 4.6 Yellow Blue
Methyl orange 3.1 to 4.4 Red Yellow
Methyl red 4.4 to 6.2 Red Yellow
Phenol red 6.8 t0 8.4 Yellow Red
Cresol red 7.2 to 8.8 Yellow Red
Naphtholphthalein 7.3 to 8.7 Yellow Blue
phenolphthalein 8.3 to 10.0 Colourless Pink
Alizarin yellow 10.1 to 12.0 Yellow Red
DIGESTER -100
INDICATORS FOR COMPLEXOMETRIC TITRATION
INDICATOR PH RANGE COLOUR CHANGE

Mordant Black II 6 to 7 Red to Blue
Enoehrome Black T 6 to 7 Red to Blue
Solochrome black T 6 to 7 Red to Blue
Murexide 12 Violet to blue
Catechol Violet 8 to 10 Violet to red
Methyl blue 4 to 5 Blue to yellow

126
Thymol blue 10 to 12 Blue to gray

Alizarine 4.3 Red to yellow
Sodium alizarie sulphate 4 Blue to red
Xylenol 1 to 6 Lemon to yellow
DIGESTER -101
PRIMARY STANDARD
TITRATION METHOD PRIMARY STANDARDS

Acid-base reactions Na2CO3, Na2B4O7, KH (C8H4O4), HCl
Complex formation reactions AgNO3, NaCl
Precipitation reactions AgNO3, KCl
Redox reactions K2Cr2O7, Na2C2O4, I2
DIGESTER -102
POINTS IN COMPLEXOMETRIC TITRATION
EDTA EDTA is used as chelator (Hexadentate).

EDTA has six potential sites for bonding a metal ion; the four
carbonyl groups and two amino groups.
INDICATOR - Erichrome Black T
Masking Agent Masking agent is a reagent that protects some component of the
analyte from reaction with EDTA.
Demasking Demasking Agent is a reagent that release of a metal ion from a
Agent masking agent.
DIGESTER -103
NON AQUEOUS TITRATION TYPES OF SOLVENT
SOLVENT DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE

Aprotic Solvent chemically inert and are not Chloroform, Benzene
solvent involved in any chemical reaction.
Photogenic These are acidic substance and yield Sulphuric acid,
solvents protons. Hydrochloric acid, Nitric
acid
Photophilic These are basic in nature and can abstract Pyridine, n-Butyl amine
solvents proton from acids to give solvated protons.
Amphiprotic Both photogenic and photophilic. Water, Acetic acid, Alcohol
solvents

127
DIGESTER -104
CHRMATOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
PRINCIPLES TECHNIQUES
 Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC)
 High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
 Adsorption Column Chromatography
Adsorption
 Gas Solid Chromatography
Partition  Paper Chromatography
 Gas Liquid Chromatography
Ion-Exchange  Ion Exchange Chromatography
Based on molecular size  Size-Exclusion Chromatography
(Exclusion)  Gel Filtration and Gel-Permeation
 Chromatography (GPC)
Analyte and ligand interaction  Affinity Chromatography
is utilized for the separation.
DIGESTER -105
CLASSIFICATION OF CHROMATOGRPHIC SEPARATIONS
TYPE OF MOBILE TYPE OF METHOD OF FIXING THE

NAME
PHASE STATIONARY PHASE STATIONARY PHASE
Adsorption Liquid Solid In a tubular column
Gas-solid Gas Solid In tubular column
Adsorbed on a porous solid
Gas-liquid Gas Liquid held in a tube or on the inner
surface of a capillary tube
Gel Liquid Liquid In the interstices of a
polymeric solid
Ion Liquid Solid Finely divided ion-exchange
exchange resin in a tubular column
Paper Liquid Liquid In the pores of a thick paper
Partition Liquid Liquid Adsorbed on a porous Solid in
a tubular column
Thin layer Liquid Liquid or solid Finally divided solid on a glass
plate
DIGESTER -106
NORMAL PHASE V/S REVERSE PHASE
CHARACTERISTIC NORMAL PHASE REVERSE PHASE

Stationary phase Polar (silica gel) Non polar (octa decyl silane C18)
Mobile phase Non polar Polar
Mechanism Adsorption Partition
Compound eluted first Non polar Polar

128
DIGESTER -107
TYPE AND THEIR STATIONARY AND MOBILE PHASE
TECHNIQUE STATIONARY PHASE MOBILE PHASE

Adsorption Silica gel, alumina, Nonpolar/Polar organic
charcoal, solvents
polyamide
Partition Cellulose, silica gel Mixed aqueous, organic
solvents
Reversed Phase ODS silica gel, coated silica, Mixed aqueous, polar solvents
acetylated cellulose
Ion exchange Ion exchange resins, Buffered aqueous solutions
cellulose,
Diethyl amino ethyl
Size exclusion Dextran gels, Agarose, Buffered aqueous solutions
Polyacrylamide
DIGESTER -108
VISUALIZING AGENT
COMPOUND REAGENT COLOUR

General Iodine vapour Brown
Acids Bromo cresol green Yellow
Aldehyde and Ketone 2, 4-Di nitro phenyl hydrazine Yellowish red
Amino acid Ninhydrin Purple
Alkaloids Mercuric nitrate Yellowish brown
Carbohydrate Aniline phthalate Gray black
Lipids Bromothymol blue Light green
Steroids Antimony trichloride Purple
Phenolic compound FeCl3 Purple
REAGENTS USED FOR

10% Sulphuric acid in ethanol All type of compounds.
Cobalt Chloride (CoCl2) Universal Stain
4-amino Antipyrine Phenols and aryl amines
Ammonium molybdate Phosphoric acid derivative
Aniline phthalate Reducing sugar
Anisidine phthalate Carbohydrates
Chloranil reagent Phenols
Dithiazone Metal ions
Ehrlich’s reagent Amine, indole derivatives
Dichlorofluorescin / fluorescin sod. Salt N-substituted barbiturates
Formaldehyde / sulphuric acid (1:10) Antihypertensive drugs
Gibb's reagent Phenols
Methyl yellow Chlorinated insecticide

129
DIGESTER -109
TYPE OF STATIONARY PHASE
Silica gel Most widely used adsorbent

(SiO2) Surface of the silica gel is acidic in nature.
Alumina (Al2O3) The active groups on the surface of chromatography alumina are
hydroxyl groups, oxide (O2–) ions and an aluminium cation.
Diatomaceous earth Chemical composition of oven-dried diatomaceous earth is 80-
(Kieselguhr) 90% silica, with 2-4% alumina and 0.5-2% iron oxide.
Magnesium Silicate Used for separation of sugars.
(MgSiO3)
Cellulose Commonly used for separating hydrophilic substances like amino
acids, sugars.
Charcoal Specific property of adsorbing strongly aromatic substances.
DIGESTER -110
PURE CELLULOSE PAPERS (WHATMAN PAPERS)
These types of papers are prepared from cotton linters selected to be especially low in
organic and inorganic impurities and uniform in physical characteristics.
Components Percentage
α Cellulose 98-99
β Cellulose 0.3-1.0
Pentosans 0.4-0.8
Ether soluble matter 0.015-0.03
Ammonia 0.001-0.06
Organic nitrogen <0.01
Inorganic material 0.008-0.06
Mostly used whatmann chromatographic filter papers are
Whatmann 31ET Used for separation of substances having
sufficiently wide apart Rf
Whatmann 3MM Generally used for preparative purposes
Whatmann 20 Slow paper
Whatmann 540-42 Acid washed paper
DIGESTER -111
COMPARISON ON COLUMN, HPLC AND GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY
Column chromatography HPLC

Stationary phase (particle size) 70 – 150 µm 3 – 20 µm
Column size Large Small
Pressure 50 – 150 psi 500 – 3000 psi

130
Column (internal diameter) HPLC Gas chromatography

Preparative 100 mm -
Normal bore 3.9 to 5.0 mm 0.53 mm
Mini bore 2.1 to 3.9 mm 0.18 mm
Micro bore 1.0 to 2.1 mm 0.1 mm
Capillary 50 µm to 1 mm 0.2, 0.25
DIGESTER -112
COMPARISON BETWEEN TLC AND HPTLC
PARAMETER TLC HPTLC

Technique Manual Instrumental
Efficiency Less High
Layer Lab made/ pre-coated Pre-coated
Mean particle size 10-12µm 5-6 µm
Layer thickness 250 µm 100 µm
Plate height 30 µm 12 µm
Solid support Silica gel, Alumina, Silica gel – normal phase
Kieselguhr
C8 and C18 – reverse phase
Sample spotting Manual spotting (capillary) Auto sampler (syringe)
DIGESTER -113
DETECTORS IN HPLC
DETECTORS DESCREPTION
Uv-visible spectroscopic Measures the ability of solutes to absorb light at a
detectors particular wavelength(s) in the ultraviolet (uv) or visible
(vis) wavelength range.
Refractive index detector Measures the molecule’s ability to deflect light in a flowing
mobile phase in a flow cell relative to a static mobile phase
contained in a reference cell.
Photo diode array detector Monitoring absorbance of solutes at several different
wavelengths
Fluorescence detectors Sensitivity depends on the fluorescence properties of the
components in the elute
Electrical conductivity Conductivity detectors measures electronic resistance and
detector measured value is directly proportional to the
concentration of ions present in the solution.

131
DIGESTER -114
DETECTORS IN GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY
SUPPORT
DETECTORS TYPE SELECTIVITY DETECTABILITY
GASES
Flame ionization Mass flow Hydrogen Most organic 100pg
(FID) and air compounds
Thermal Concentration Reference Universal 1ng

conductivity
(TCD)
Electron capture Concentration Make up Halides, nitrates, 50fg
nitriles,
peroxides,
anhydrides,
organometallics
Nitrogen Mass flow Hydrogen Nitrogen, 10pg
phosphorus and air phosphorus
Flame Mass flow Hydrogen Sulphur, 100pg
photometric and air phosphorus, tin,
possibly boron, arsenic,
oxygen germanium,
selenium,
chromium
Photoionization Concentration Make up Aliphatic, 2pg
aromatics,
ketones,
esters,
aldehydes,
amines,
heterocyclic
DIGESTER -115
IMPORTANT POINT IN GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY
Carrier gas used in gas Helium, Argon, Nitrogen,

chromatography
Flow regulator used in gas Rotameter, Soap bubble flow meter
chromatography
Column type in in gas (a) Capillary column – Diameter 0.2 to 0.7 mm
chromatography length – 150 meter
(b) Packed column – Diameter 2 to 5 mm length 1
to 3 meter

132
Parameter
Retention time Difference between point of injection and
appearance of peak maxima.
Retention volume Volume of carrier gas required to elute
50 % of component from the column.
HETP (Height equivalent to If HETP is less – column is more efficient
theoretical plate) If HETP is more – Column is less efficient
Number of theoretical plate If number of theoretical plate is high than column is
highly efficient
If number of theoretical plate is less than column is
less efficient
B
Van Deemter Equation H = A + + Cμ
μ
Where, H = Height of theoretical plate,
= Average liner velocity of mobile phase
A = Eddy diffusion
B = Longitudinal or ordinary diffusion term
C = Non equilibrium or resistance to mass transfer
Van Deemeter plots • The term ‘A’ is independent of flow of
the mobile phase
12
• The term B/u decrease drastically in
10
the beginning with increase in the
HETP-AB/v+Cv
08 flow rate of mobile phase. Increase in
Cv the flow rate beyond particulars
HETP (mm)
06
value , leads to slow decrease value
04 in the value of B/u
B/v
02
• The term Cu increase with increase
A in the rate
00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
DIGESTER -116
CHIRAL CHROMATOGRAPHY
Chiral chromatography - Separation of particular isomer from enantionmeric mixture

involves formation of Diastereomers
Stationary Naphthyl Alanine, Naphthyl Leucine, Dinitro benzoyl phenyl glycine, β-
Phase Cyclodextrin
Mobile phase Non polar solvents

133
DIGESTER -117
SIZE EXCLUSION CHROMATOGRAPHY
Size Exclusion Chromatography - Larger molecule unable to fit into pores are eluted
first while small molecules enters into pores and are eluted later.
Gel Permeation Stationary phase used are semi-rigid or rigid gel.
Example: Cross-linked polystyrene, Alkylated Dextran,Controlled
porosity Glass beads
Gel Filtration- Stationary phase used are cross-linked carbohydrates.
Example: Sephadex (Cross linked dextran), Agarose (Sepharose),
Polyacrylamide (Bio-gel)
DIGESTER -118
ION EXCHANGE RESINS
TYPE STATIONARY PHASE MOBILE PHASE

Strongly acidic cation Sulphonated polystyrene Cations, inorganic separations,
exchange resin resins vitamins, amino acids
Weakly acidic cation Carboxylic polymethacrylate Cations, transition elements,
exchange resin resins amino acid, antibiotic
Strongly basic anion Quarternary ammonium Anion, halogen, alkaloids,
exchange resin polystyrene resin vitamin B complex
Weakly basic anion Phenol formaldehyde and Anionic complexes of metals,
exchange resin polyamide polystyrene vitamins and amino acid
DIGESTER -119
IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER
Edge effect The solvent front in the middle of TLC plates moves faster than that
edge. Therefore the spot are distorted and not regular.
Preparation of (a) Pouring
thin layer plate (b) Spraying
(c) Dipping
(d) Spreding (Best technique) Spreder is 0.25 mm
Retention factor Distance travelled by solute/ Distance travelled by solvent.
(Rf ) Rf Value cannot be greater than 1.
Mobile phase in CCl4 , Cyclohexane, Ether, Acetone, Benzene, Toluene, Chloroform,
TLC Alcohol
Hydrophilic Isopropanol : Ammonia : Water (9:1:2)
Mobile phase in n-Butanol : glacial acetic acid : Water (4:1:5)
paper Methanol : Water (3:1)
chromatography Hydrophobic Kerosene : 70% Isopropanol
Dimethyl ether : Cyclohexane

134
Elution technique (a) Isocratic elution – Single solvent run through column.
(b) Gradient elution – Solvents with increasing polarity
Detection of (a) Uv-visible detector
compound in (b) Fluorescence detector
column (c) Flame ionization detector
chromatography (d) Refractive index detector
Pump used in (a) Pneumatic pump
HPLC (b) Reciprocating pump
(c) Displacement pump
DIGESTER -120
NON AQUEOUS TITRATIONS
S. NO. NAME OF THE DRUG TITRANT

1 Acetazolamide 0.1 MN (C4H9)4 OH [tetrabutyl
ammonium hydroxide]
2 Adrenaline 0.1 MHClO4
3 Albendazole 0.1 MHClO4
4 Allopurinol 0.1 MN(C4H9)4 OH
5 Amiloride HCl 0.1 MHClO4
6 Aminocaproic acid 0.1 MHClO4
7 Amitripty line HCl 0.1 MHClO4
8 Astemizole 0.1 MHClO4
9 Atenolol 0.1 MHClO4
10 Atropine metuonitrate 0.1 MHClO4
11 Benzhexol HCl 0.1 MHClO4
12 Bisacodyl 0.1 MHClO4
13 Bromocriptinemesylate 0.1 MHClO4
14 Bupremorphine HCl 0.1 MHClO4
15 Caffeine 0.1 MHClO4
16 Calcium Pantothenate 0.1 MHClO4
17 Carbenoxolone sodium 0.1 MN(C4H9)4 OH
18 Carbidopa 0.1 MHClO4
19 Chlordiazepoxide 0.1 MHClO4
20 Chlorhexidine gluconate 0.1 MHClO4
21 Chloroquine PO43- 0.1 MHClO4
22 Chlorpheniramine maleate 0.1 MHClO4
23 Chlopromazine HCl 0.1 MHClO4
24 Chlorthalidone 0.1 MN(C4H9)4 OH
25 Cimetidine 0.1 MHClO4
26 Clofazimine 0.1 MHClO4
27 Clotrimazole 0.1 MHClO4
28 Codeine PO43- 0.1 MHClO4
29 Colchicine 0.1 MHClO4
30 Cyclizine HCl 0.1 MHClO4
31 Cyproheptadine HCl 0.1 MHClO4

135
32 Cytarabine 0.1 MHClO4

33 Dehydroemetine HCl 0.1 MHClO4
34 Dequalinium Cl 0.1 MHClO4
35 Diazepam 0.1 MHClO4
36 Diclofenaec sodium 0.1 MHClO4
37 Dicyclomine HCl 0.1 MHClO4
38 Diethyl carbamazine 0.1 MHClO4
39 Di- iodohydroxyquinoline 0.1 MN(C4H9)4 OH
40 Diloxanide furoate 0.1 MN(C4H9)4 OH
41 DiphenhydramineHCl 0.1 MHClO4
42 Dothiepin HCl 0.1 MHClO4
43 Doxepin HCl 0.1 MHClO4
44 Econazole NO3 0.1 MHClO4
45 Emetine HCl 0.1 MHClO4
46 Ergometrine maleate 0.1 MHClO4
47 Ergotaminetartarate 0.1 MHClO4
48 Ethambutol HCl 0.1 MHClO4
49 Ethionamide 0.1 MHClO4
50 Ethopropazine HCl 0.1 MHClO4
51 Ethosuximide 0.1 MN(C4H9)4 OH
52 Fenfluramine 0.1 MHClO4
53 Fluorouracil 0.1 MN(C4H9)4 OH
54 Fluphenazine decanoate 0.1 MHClO4
55 Gallamine triethiodide 0.1 MHClO4
56 Glycine 0.1 MHClO4
57 Haloperidol 0.1 MHClO4
58 Histamine PO43- 0.1 MHClO4
59 Homatropine HBr 0.1 MHClO4
60 Hydro chlorothiazide 0.1 MN(C4H9)4 OH
61 Hyoscine butyl bromide 0.1 MHClO4
62 Idoxuridene 0.1 MN(C4H9)4 OH
63 Imipramine HCl 0.1 MHClO4
64 Isoprenaline 0.1 MHClO4
65 Isoxsuprine 0.1 MHClO4
66 Ketamine HCl 0.1 MHClO4
67 Ketaconazole 0.1 MHClO4
68 Labetalol HCl 0.1 MHClO4
69 Levodopa 0.1 MHClO4
70 Lignocaine HCl 0.1 MHClO4
71 Mebendazole 0.1 MHClO4
72 Mebeverine HCl 0.1 MHClO4
73 Meclizine HCl 0.1 MHClO4
74 Mepyraminemaleate 0.1 MHClO4
75 Mercaptopurine 0.1 MN(C4H9)4 OH
76 Metformin HCl 0.1 MHClO4
77 Methadone HCl 0.1 MHClO4

136
78 Methoxamine HCl 0.1 MHClO4

79 Methyldopa 0.1 MHClO4
80 Metoprololtartarate 0.1 MHClO4
81 Metronidazole
0.1 MHClO4
82 Miconazole NO3-
83 Morphine SO42- 0.1 MHClO4
84 Neostigmine Br- - do-
85 Niclosamide 0.1 MN(C4H9)4 OH
86 Nicolinamide 0.1 MHClO4
87 Nikethamide 0.1 MHClO4
88 Nitrazepam - do-
89 Noradrenalinebirartarate - do-
90 Norfloxacin - do-
91 Nortriptyline HCl - do-
92 Noscapine 0.1 MHClO4
93 Oxprenolol HCl - do-
94 Penicillamine - do-
95 Pentamidineissothionate 0.1 MN(C4H9)4 OH
96 Pentazocine 0.1 MHClO4
97 Pethidine HCl - do-
98 Phenformin HCl - do-
99 Phenindamine maleate 0.1 MHClO4
100 Pheniramine maleate 0.1 MHClO4
101 Phentolamine mesylate 0.1 MN(C4H9)4 OH
102 Pholcodine 0.1 MHClO4
103 Physostigminesalicylate 0.1 MHClO4
104 Pilocarpine NO3 0.1 MHClO4
105 Piperazine adipate 0.1 MHClO4
106 Potassium citrate - do-
107 Prazosin 0.1 MHClO4
108 Primaquin PO43- - do-
109 ProchlorperazineMaleate - do-
110 Proguanine HCl - do-
111 Propantheline Br- - do-
112 Propylphenazone - do-
113 Psuedo ephedrine HCl - do-
114 PYridenine HCl - do-
115 Pyrimethamine - do-
116 Quinidene SO42- - do-
117 Quinine bisulphate - do-
118 Quiniodochlor 0.1 MN(C4H9)4 OH
119 Salbutamol 0.1 MHClO4
120 CH3COONa - do-
121 Sodium benzoate - do-
122 Sodium CMC - do-
123 Sodium citrate - do-

137
124 Sodium cromoglycate - do-

125 NaF - do-
126 Sodium salicylate - do-
127 Sodium valproate - do-
128 Succiyl choline chloride - do-
129 Sulfafurazole 0.1 MN(C4H9)4 OH
130 Tamoxifen citrate 0.1 MHClO4
131 Terbutaline SO 2-4 - do-
132 Thiobendazole - do-
133 Thiamine HCl - do-
134 Thiopentone NA 0.1 M Limethoxide
135 Timolol maleate 0.1 MHClO4
136 Tinidazole - do-
137 Trimterene - do-
138 Trifluoperazine HCl - do-
139 Triflupromazine HCl - do-
140 Trimethoprim 0.1 MHClO4
141 Tripolidine HCl - do-
142 Tropicamide - do-
143 Verapamil HCl - do-
144 Xylometazole - do-
DIGESTER -121
COMPLEXOMETRIC TIRATIONS
S.NO CHEMICAL TITRANT

1 Al2(SO4)3 0.5 M disod. edetate
2 Bismuth subcarbonete 0.1 M disod. edetate
3 CaCO3 0.05 M disod. edetate
4 CaCl2 0.05 M disod. edetate
5 Calcium gluconate 0.05 M disod. edetate
6 Calcium Lactate 0.05 M disod. edetate
7 Calcium levulinate 0.05 M disod. edetate
8 Dibasic Ca phosphate 0.1 M disod. edetate
9 Heavy MgCO3 0.05 M disod. edetate
10 MgCl2 0.05 M disod. edetate
11 Mg(OH)2 0.05 M disod. edetate
12 Heavy MgO 0.05 M disod. edetate
13 Magnesium stearate 0.1 M disod. edetate
14 MgSO4 0.05 M disod. edetate
15 Magnesium trisilicate 0.05 M disod. edetate
16 ZnCl2 0.1 M disod. edetate
17 ZnO 0.1 M disod. edetate
18 Zinc stearate 0.1 M disod. edetate
19 ZnSO4 7H2O 0.1 M disod. edetate

138
DIGESTER -122
ACID BASE TITRATIONS
S.NO NAME OF DRUGS TITRANT

1. Amantadine 0.1 M NaOH
2. NH4Cl 0.1 M NAOH
3. Aspirin 0.5 M NaOH (back titration)
4. Benzoic acid 0.5 M NaOH
5. Boric acid 1 M NaOH
6. Bromohexine HCl 0.1 M NaOH
7. Bupivocaine 0.01 M ethanolic NaOH
8. Busulphan 0.1 M NaOH
9. Calamine 0.5 M H2SO4
10. Chlorambucil 0.1 M NaOH
11. Chlorpropamide 0.1 M NaOH
12. Citric acid 1 M NaOH
13. Clonidine 0.1 M ethanolic NaOH
14. Cycloserine 0.1 M NaOH
15. Dextromethorphan 0.1 M NaOH
16. Ephedrine 0.1 M NaOH
17. Ethacrynic acid 0.1 M HCl
18. Ethinyl oestradiol 0.1 M NaOH
19. Flurbiprofen 0.1 M NaOH
20. Frusemide 0.1 M NaOH
21. Fusidic acid 0.1 M NaOH
22. Glibenclamide 0.1 M NaOH
23. Glycerime 0.1 M NaOH
24. HCl 0.1 M NaOH
25. Ibuprofen 0.1 M NaOH
26. Indomethacin 0.1 M NaOH
27. Ketoprofen 0.1 M NaOH
28. Lactic acid 1 M NaOH
29. Levamisole HCl 1 M NaOH
30. Lithium Carbonate 1 M HCl
31. Mefenamic acid 0.1 M NaOH
32. MephentermineSO42- 0.05 M H2SO4
33. Methylsalicylate 0.1 M NaOH (back titration)
34. MetoclopromideHCl 0.1 M NaOH
35. Mianserin HCl 0.1 M NaOH
36. Nalidixic acid 0.1 M ethanolic NaOH
37. Nicolinic acid 0.1 M NaOH
38. Norethisterone 0.1 M NaOH
39. Oxypnenbutazone 0.1 M NaOH
40. Pentobarbitontesodium 0.1 M ethanolic NaOH
41. Phenobarbitone 0.1 M ethanolic NaOH
42. Phosphoric acid 1 M NaOH
43. Phthalyl sulphathiazole 0.1 M NaOH
44. Probenecid 0.1 M NaOH
45. Promethazine 0.1 M NaOH

139
46. Propranolol HCl 0.1 M NaOH

47. Propyl thiouracil 0.1 M NaOH
48. Pyrazinamide 0.05 M H2SO4 (back titration)
49. Quinal barbitone sodium 0.1 M ethanolic NaOH
50. Saccharin 0.1 M NaOH
51. Salicylic acid 0.1 M NaOH
52. NaHCO3 1 M HCl
53. NaH2PO4.2H2O 1 M NaOH
54. Sodium fusidate 0.1 M HCl
55. NaOH 1 M HCl
56. Sod. Lactate injection 0.05 M H2SO4 (back titration)
57. Urea 0.1 M HCl
58. Sorbic acid 0.1 M NaOH
59. Tartaric acid 1 M NaOH
60. Theophylline 0.1 M NaOH
61. Thiotepa 0.1 M HCl
62. Tolbutamide 0.1 M NaCOH
63. Undeconic acid 0.5 M NaCOH
64. Warfarin sodium 0.01 M NaOH
65. Vanillin 0.1 M NaOH
DIGESTER -123
REDOX TITRATIONS
1 Ascorbic acid Tablets 0.1 M cerric ammonium sulphate

2 Ferrous fumarate -do-
3 Ferrous gluconate 0.1 M cerric ammonium nitrate
4 Ferrous sulphate - do –
5 H2O2 soln. (100vol) 0.02 M KMnO4
6 Menadione 0.1 M cerric ammonium sulphate
7 Nifedipine - do –
8 Paracetamol - do –
9 Tocopheryl acetate - do –
DIGESTER -124
NITRITE TITRATIONS
1 Benzocaine 0.1 M NaNO2

2 Dapsone 0.1 M NaNO2
3 Procainamide HCl 0.1 M NaNO2
4 Procaine HCl 0.1 M NaNO2
5 Sod PAS 0.1 M NaNO2
6 Succinylsulphathiazole 0.1 M NaNO2
7 Sulphacetamidesodium 0.1 M NaNO2
8 Sulphadiazine 0.1 M NaNO2
9 Sulpha dimethoxine 0.1 M NaNO2

140
10 Sulphadimidine 0.1 M NaNO2

11 Sulphadoxine 0.1 M NaNO2
12 Sulphamethizole 0.1 M NaNO2
13 Sulphamethoxazole 0.1 M NaNO2
14 Sulfaphenazole 0.1 M NaNO2
DIGESTER -125
POTENTIOMETRIC TITRATIONS
1 Acebutolol HCl 0.1M NaOH

2 Dipenoxylate HCl 0.1M rhanolic NaOH
3 Hydralazine HCl 0.05M HIO3
4 Phenytoin Sodium 0.1M NaOH
DIGESTER -126
ARGENTOMETRIC TITRATIONS
1 NaCl 0.1M AgNO3

2 AgNO3 0.1M Ammonium thiocyanate
3 KCl 0.1M AgNO3
4 Melphalan 0.1M AgNO3
5 Disulfiram 0.1M AgNO3
6 Lomustine 0.05M AgNO3
DIGESTER -127
IODOMETRY & IODIMETY TITRATIONS
1 Analgin Iodimetry 0.05M I2

2 Ascorbic acid Iodimetry 0.05M I2
3 Cephalexin Iodimetry 0.02M Na2S2O3
4 Chlorocresol Iodimetry 0.1M Na2S2O3
5 Chloroxylenol Iodimetry 0.1M Na2S2O3
6 Dimercaprol Iodimetry 0.1M Na2S2O3
7 Guaiphenesin Iodimetry 0.05M I2
8 I2 Iodimetry 0.1M Na2S2O3
9 Mannitol Iodimetry 0.05M I2
10 Methyl paraben Iodimetry 0.1M Na2S2O3
11 Monothioglycerol Iodimetry 0.05M I2
12 Phenol Iodimetry 0.1M Na2S2O3
13 KI Iodimetry 0.05M KIO3
14 KMnO4 Iodimetry 0.1M Na2S2O3
15 Sod. ascorbate Iodimetry 0.05M I2

141
16 Sod. diatrizoate Iodimetry 0.05M KIO3

17 Sorbitol Iodimetry 0.05M I2
18 Na2S2O35H2O Iodimetry 0.05M I2
19 Sodium metabisulphite Iodimetry 0.1M I2
20 Thyroxine sodium Iodimetry 0.1M Na2S2O3
DIGESTER -128
DRUGS ANALYZED BY GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS
1. Thioacetazone sodium. 2. Fluorescein 3. BaSO4
DIGESTER -129
DRUGS ANALYZED BY HPLC
1. Alprazolam 2. Cefadroxil 3. Cefazolin sodium 4. Cefotaxime sodium

5. Ceftazidime 6. Cefuroxim 7. Ca Folinate 8. Cholecalciferol
9. Ciprofloxacin 10. Cisplatin 11. Diltiazem 12. Doxorubicin HCl
13. Enalapril 14. Ergocalciferol 15. Guaggul resin 16. Insulin
maleate
17. Methotrexate 18. Opium 19. Omeprazole 20. Ormeloxifene HCl
21. Piroxica 22. Ranitidine 23. Vinblastin SO 2- 4 24. Vincristine SO 2- 4
DIGESTER -130
MICROBIOLOGICAL ASSAYS
NAME OF THE DRUG MICRORGANISM USED

Amikacin Staphylococcus aureus
Amphotericin B Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Erythromycin Micrococcus luteus
Doxycycline HCl Staphylococcus aureus
Gentamicin SO42- eye drops Staphylococcus epidermidis
Kanamycin SO42- B. pumilus, S. aureus
Kanamycin B B. subtilis
Novobiocin Na S. epidermidis
Nystatin Saccharomyces cervisiae
Neomycin Sraphylococus epidermides
Rifampicin B. subtilis
Streptomycin SO42- Klebsiella pneumonia & B. subtilis
Tetracycline Staphylococcus aureus, B. cereus

142
DIGESTER -131
SPECTROMETRY
NAME OF THE DRUG ABSORBANCE

1. Amodiaquine HCl 343nm
2. Calciferol Capsules 500 & 550nm
3. Carbamezapine 285nm
4. Carbimazole 291nm
5. Chloramphenicol 278nm
6. Cyanocobalamn 361nm
7. Danazol 285nm
8. Deslanoside 420nm
9. Dienoestrol 245nm
10. Digitoxin 495nm
11. Dydrogesterone 286nm
12. Folic acid 550nm
13. Furazolidine 367nm
14. Gresiofulvin 291nm
15. Hydroxocobalamin 351nm
16. Hydroxyprogesterone hexanoate 240nm
17. Lanatoside C 484nm
18. Levonorgestrol 241nm
19. Megesterol acetate 287nm
20. Methylergometrine maleate 550nm
21. Nalorphine HCl 285nm
22. Nandrolone decanoate 239nm
23. Nitrofurantoin 367nm
24. Nitrofurazone 375nm
25. Norgesterol 241nm
26. Oestradiol benzoate 231nm
27. Phenolphthalein 555nm
28. Reserpine 388nm
29. Riboflavin 444nm
30. Rifampicin 475nm
31. Spironolactone 238nm
DIGESTER -132
MISCELLANEOUS
NAME OF THE DRUG TITRANT
Thiomersal 0.1 M ammonium thiocyanate
Sodium stilbogluconate 0.05 M ferric ammonium SO42-
Sodium lauryl sulphate 0.04 Benzethomium Cl-
Phenyl mercuric acetale 0.1 M amm thiocyanate
Isoniazid 0.0167 M KBrO3
Desferrioxamine mesylate 0.1 M ferric ammonium sulphate
Cyclophosphamide 1.1 M AgNO3
Cloxacillin sodium 1.2 M mercuric NO -3
Cetrimide 0.05 M KIO3
Captopril 0.025 M KIO3
143

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DIGESTER

Rapid Revision Notes

YOUR GATEWAY TO SUCCESS

GPAT DISCUSSION CENTER

1. PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY 1-12

2. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 13-34

3. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 35-46

4. MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY 47-106

5. PHARMACEUTICAL ANALYSIS 107-143

SOLUTE SOLVENT TYPES OF SOLUTION EXAMPLES

NAME SYMBOL FORMULA DEFINITION

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Parts per ppm Mass solute  g  Number of parts of

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Colligative Properties Properties which depend only upon the

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Enthalpy (H) The total heat content of a system is called as enthalpy of a

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Entropy (S) It is the measurement of randomness or disorder of the

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LAW DESCRIPTION FORMULA

Charle’s law At constant pressure, the volume of a given mass of a gas V1 V2

Temperature It is measured in Celsius scale (C) or in Kelvin scale (K).

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HALF LIFE V/S CONCENTRATION

RATE V/S CONCETRATION

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Geometrical Geometrical isomerism is possible in cyclic compounds There should be

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TYPE OF ATTACKING REAGET

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(C) Elimination Alpha elimination Removal of H and X from one C

INDUCTIVE Polarity developed in Carbon–chain due to the shifting of

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S.NO CATEGORY SN1 SN2

S.NO. FUNCTIONAL GROUP PREFIX SUFFIX

4. –(C)OOR (ester) × Alkyl ---- oate

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6. –(C)ONH2 (amide) × Amide

11. –OH (alcohol) Hydroxy Ol

STRUCTURE COMMON NAME IUPAC NAME

CH2COOH Phenylacetic acid 2-Phenylethanoic acid

COOH Phthalic acid Benzene-1,2-dicarboxylic

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S. NO. MATERIAL EFFECTIVE ISOMERS

S.NO. TYPE OF HYBRIDIZATION EXAMPLES

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BOND BOND LENGTH (Å)

BOND BOND ENERGY (KCAL/MOL)

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1. Wolff Kishner reduction/ Hung-milnon reaction  Aldehydes and ketones (>C=O)

2. Meerweili-Ponndorf-Verley (MPV) reduction Ketones can also be reduced to

3. Pinacol-pinacolone rearrangement Two molecules of ketones undergo reduction in

4. Beckmann rearrangement Ketoximes on treatment with acid catalyst such as conc.

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6. Aldol condensation It is a chemical reaction in which two or more molecules of same

7. Reduction of Fehling's solution

8. Cannizzaro's reactions Formaldehyde, benzaldehyde and other aldehydes containing

9. Tischenko's reaction This is a modified form of Cannizzaro's reaction. All aldehydes

10. Claisen-Schmidt reaction This condensation reaction (also known as Claisen

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13. Diazotisation [Action of nitrous acid (NaN02 + HCl)]: Diazotisation is a reaction in