Chapter 10: Properties of Solutions

A solution is a homogeneous type of

mixture of two or more substances.
A solution has two parts: a solute
and a solvent. The solute is the
substance that dissolves, and the
solvent is the majority of the solution

1
Section 10.1 Solution Composition

2
Expressing
Concentrations of
Solutions

3
 moles of solute
Molarity Molarity (M ) =
liters of solution
Exercise
You have 1.00 mol of sugar in 125.0 mL of solution. Calculate
the concentration in units of molarity.
8.00 M
You have a 10.0 M sugar solution. What volume of this
solution do you need to have 2.00 mol of sugar?
0.200 L
Consider separate solutions of NaOH and KCl made by
dissolving 100.0 g of each solute in 250.0 mL of solution.
Calculate the concentration of each solution in units of molarity.
[100.0 g NaOH / 39.998 g/mol] / [250.0 / 1000] = 10.0 M NaOH
[100.0 g KCl / 74.55 g/mol] / [250.0 / 1000] = 5.37 M KCl

4
Mass Percent
mass of solute
Mass (weight) percent =  100%
mass of solution
Exercise
What is the percent-by-mass concentration of glucose in a
solution made my dissolving 5.5 g of glucose in 78.2 g of
water?
[5.5 g / (5.5 g + 78.2 g)] × 100 = 6.6%

molesA
Mole Fraction Mole fraction ( A ) =
total moles of solution
Exercise
A solution of phosphoric acid was made by dissolving 8.00 g
of H3PO4 in 100.0 mL of water. Calculate the mole fraction of
H3PO4. (Assume water has a density of 1.00 g/mL.)
8.00 g H3PO4 × (1 mol / 97.994 g H3PO4) = 0.0816 mol H3PO4
100.0 mL H2O × (1.00 g H2O / mL) × (1 mol / 18.016 g H2O) = 5.55
mol H2O
Mole Fraction (H3PO4) = 0.0816 mol H3PO4 / [0.0816 mol H3PO4 +
5
5.55 mol H2O] = 0.0145
Molality
moles of solute
Molality ( m ) =
kilogram of solvent
Exercise
A solution of phosphoric acid was made by dissolving 8.00 g
of H3PO4 in 100.0 mL of water. Calculate the molality of the
solution. (Assume water has a density of 1.00 g/mL.)

8.00 g H3PO4 × (1 mol / 97.994 g H3PO4) = 0.0816 mol H3PO4

100.0 mL H2O × (1.00 g H2O / mL) × (1 kg / 1000 g) = 0.1000 kg H2O

Molality = 0.0816 mol H3PO4 / 0.1000 kg H2O] = 0.816 m

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Section 10.2 The Energies of Solution Formation

Formation of a Liquid Solution

1. Overcoming intermolecular forces in the solvent to make room

for the solute (expanding the solvent).
2. Separating the solute into its individual components
(expanding the solute).
3. Allowing the solute and solvent to interact to form the solution.
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Steps in the Dissolving Process

8
 • Steps 1 and 2 require energy, since forces must be overcome
to expand the solute and solvent.
• Step 3 usually releases energy.
• Steps 1 and 2 are endothermic, and step 3 is often exothermic.

Enthalpy (Heat) of Solution (two scenarios)

Scenario 1 Scenario 2 9
Exercise
Explain why water and oil (a long chain hydrocarbon) do not
mix. In your explanation, be sure to address how ΔH plays a
role.

• One factor that favors a process is an increase in probability of the

state when the solute and solvent are mixed.
• Processes that require large amounts of energy tend not to occur.
• Overall, remember that “like dissolves like”. 10
Section 10.3 Factors Affecting Solubility

Solubility is a chemical property referring to the

ability for a given substance, the solute, to
dissolve in a solvent.

Nature of Solute and Solvent (Chemical)

Pressure and Temperature (Physical)

Structural Effects (Solute)

Polarity

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Fat soluble Water soluble
Pressure Effects
• Henry’s law: C = kP
C = concentration of dissolved gas
k = constant
P = partial pressure of
gas solute above
the solution
• Amount of gas dissolved in a solution
is directly proportional to the pressure
of the gas above the solution.

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A Gaseous Solute

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Temperature Effects (for Aqueous Solutions)

• Although the solubility of

most solids in water
increases with temperature,
the solubilities of some
substances decrease with
increasing temperature.
• Predicting temperature
dependence of solubility is
very difficult.
• Solubility of a gas in
solvent typically decreases
with increasing temperature.

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15
Section 10.4 The Vapor Pressures of Solutions

considering pure water (solvent) first

Pressure is the force

applied perpendicular to the
surface of an object per unit
area over which that force is
distributed. P = Force/Area

1 atm = 760 torr = 760 mmHg 16

An Aqueous Solution and Pure Water in a Closed Environment

17
Vapor Pressures of Solutions

• Nonvolatile solute lowers the vapor pressure of a solvent.

• Raoult’s Law:
Psoln = solvPsolv
Psoln = observed vapor pressure of solution
solv = mole fraction of solvent
Psolv = vapor pressure of pure solvent

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A Solution Obeying Raoult’s
Law

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Nonideal Solutions

• Liquid-liquid solutions where both components

are volatile.
• Modified Raoult’s Law:
PTotal =  APA + BPB
• Nonideal solutions behave ideally as the mole
fractions approach 0 and 1.

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Summary of the Behavior of Various Types of Solutions

Deviation
Interactive Forces T for
from
Between Solute (A) and Hsoln Solution Example
Raoult’s
Solvent (B) Particles Formation
Law

None (ideal Benzene-

A  A, B  B  A  B Zero Zero
solution) toluene

Negative Acetone-
A  A, B  B < A  B Positive Negative
(exothermic) water

Positive Ethanol-
A  A, B  B > A  B Negative Positive
(endothermic) hexane

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Exercise

For each of the following solutions, would you expect it to be

relatively ideal (with respect to Raoult’s Law), show a positive
deviation, or show a negative deviation?
a) Hexane (C6H14) and chloroform (CHCl3)
b) Ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH) and water
c) Hexane (C6H14) and octane (C8H18)

a) Positive deviation; Hexane is non-polar, chloroform is polar.

b) Negative deviation; Both are polar, and the ethyl alcohol
molecules can form stronger hydrogen bonding with the water
molecules than it can with other alcohol molecules.
c) Ideal; Both are non-polar with similar molar masses.

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 Section 10.5 Boiling-Point Elevation and Freezing-Point Depression

Colligative Properties
• Depend only on the number, not on the identity, of the
solute particles in an ideal solution:
 Boiling-point elevation
 Freezing-point depression
 Osmotic pressure

Boiling-Point Elevation
• Nonvolatile solute elevates the boiling point of the solvent.
• ΔT = Kbmsolute
ΔT = boiling-point elevation
Kb = molal boiling-point elevation constant
msolute = molality of solute
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Colligative（取決於分子，原子的數目，而非取決於其性質的）
 Freezing-Point Depression
• Nonvolatile solute lowers the freezing point of the solvent.
• ΔT = Kfmsolute
ΔT = freezing-point depression
Kf = molal freezing-point depression constant
msolute = molality of solute

non-volatile solutes help extend the liquid temperature range! 24

Note: Kb and Kf are small for water
Salt as an Anti-freeze

Rock salt NaCl is commonly

used to prevent roads from
freezing in US and Europe in
winter-time 17% of all uses.
What is the most important? 25
Ethylene glycol HOCH2CH2OH as an Anti-freeze

Salt cannot be used in many mechanical systems of heat exchange fluids –

(e.g. engine coolant, car radiator system) since salt solutions are highly corrosive.
So some high boiling liquids such as ethylene glycol EG are added to H2O,
Still works based on colligative properties.

EG is toxic so is replaced by related

Propylene glycol PG in food processing
industry (ice-cream) & vapor in e-cigarettes

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Exercise
A solution was prepared by dissolving 25.00 g glucose in 200.0 g
water. The molar mass of glucose is 180.16 g/mol. What is the
boiling point of the resulting solution (in °C)? Glucose is a
molecular solid that is present as individual molecules in solution.

The change in temperature is ΔT = Kbmsolute.

Kb is 0.51 °C·kg/mol.
To solve for msolute, use the equation m = moles of solute/kg of solvent.

Moles of solute = (25.00 g glucose)(1 mol / 180.16 g glucose) = 0.1388

mol glucose

msolute = (0.1388 mol glucose) / (0.2000 kg water) = 0.6938 mol/kg

ΔT = (0.51 °C·kg/mol)(0.6938 mol/kg) = 0.35 °C.

The boiling point of the resulting solution is 100.00 °C + 0.35 °C =

100.35 °C.
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You take 20.0 g of a sucrose (C12H22O11) and NaCl mixture
and dissolve it in 1.0 L of water. The freezing point of this
solution is found to be -0.426°C. Assuming ideal behavior,
calculate the mass percent composition of the original
mixture, and the mole fraction of sucrose in the original
mixture.
0.426 = 1.86 × msolute msolute = 0.23 mol/kg

w/58.5 + w/58.5 + (20-w)/342 = 0.23 w = 5.5 g

5.5/20 = 0.275 = 27.5%

The mixture is 72.5% sucrose and 27.5% sodium chloride.

5.5/58.5 = 0.094 mol NaCl 0.042 / (0.042 + 0.094) = 0.309

14.5/342 = 0.042 mol sucrose
The mole fraction of the sucrose is 0.309.
Note: To solve this problem, the students must assume
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that i = 2 for NaCl.
Which will have biggest effect ?

From what we have learned, which addition will have the

biggest effect on freezing point depression of 100 mL water?

A. 10g of ethylene glycol (Mw = 62)

B. 10g of potassium chloride KCl (Mw = 74)

C. 10g of propylene glycol (Mw =76)

D. 10g of sugar (Sucrose) (Mw = 342)

E. All will have same effect

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Changes in Boiling Point and Freezing Point of Water
(understanding the phenomena using phase diagrams)

Phase diagram melting vaporization

freezing condensation

sublimation
deposition

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The phase diagram
for water

The phase diagram

for carbon dioxide

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The triple point

Where all three lines meet,

you must have a unique
combination of temperature
and pressure where all
three phases are in
equilibrium together.

The critical point

At the critical point, defined

by a critical temperature Tc
and a critical pressure pc,
phase boundaries vanish.
liquid and gas have become
indistinguishable
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Moving from solid to liquid by Moving from solid to
changing the temperature liquid by changing the
pressure

Moving from liquid to vapor:

33
Moving from solid to vapor Moving from vapor to liquid

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Changes in the phase diagram for solutions
(Boiling Point and Freezing Point of Water)

Please use the phase diagram

Inaccurate here
in the next page 35
Changes in the phase diagram for solutions
(Boiling Point and Freezing Point of Water)

Please use this one 36

Section 10.6 Osmotic Pressure

• Osmosis – flow of solvent into the solution through a

semipermeable membrane.
•  = MRT
 = osmotic pressure (atm)
M = molarity of the solution
R = gas law constant
T = temperature (Kelvin)

Time Time

37
38
A plant cell has a natural concentration of 0.25 m.
You immerse it in an aqueous solution with a freezing point
of –0.246°C.
Will the cell explode, shrivel, or do nothing?

0. 246 = 1.86 × msolute msolute = 0.132 mol/kg

The cell will explode (or at least expand). The concentration of

the solution is 0.132 m. Thus, the cell has a higher
concentration, and water will enter the cell.

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Exercise
When 33.4 mg of a compound is dissolved in 10.0 mL of water
at 25°C, the solution has an osmotic pressure of 558 torr.
Calculate the molar mass of this compound.
111 g/mol

 = MRT R = 0.08206 L atm / K mol

558/760 = 0.734 atm

M = 0.734 / (0.08206×298) = 0.03 mol/L

33.4
10.0 ≈ 0.03 x = 111 g/mol
x

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 dialysis: 透析; 洗腎
Dialysis involves elimination of waste
matter from the blood and maintaining
electrolyte balance through osmosis.

Dialysis membrane allows passage of solvent and small solute molecules/ions:

In kidney dialysis, the dialyzing solution contains the same concentrations
of ions and small molecules as blood but has none of the waste products
normally removed by the kidneys, so waste molecules migrate into dialyzing
41
solution.
Section 10.7 Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions

moles of particles in solution

van’t Hoff Factor, i i =
moles of solute dissolved

Ion Pairing

• At a given instant a small

percentage of the sodium and
chloride ions are paired and thus
count as a single particle.

Examples
• The expected value for i can be determined for a salt
by noting the number of ions per formula unit
(assuming complete dissociation and that ion
pairing does not occur).
 NaCl i=2
 KNO3 i=2 42
 Na3PO4 i=4
Ion Pairing
• Ion pairing is most important in concentrated solutions.
• As the solution becomes more dilute, the ions are
farther apart and less ion pairing occurs.
• Ion pairing occurs to some extent in all electrolyte
solutions.
• Ion pairing is most important for highly charged ions.

43
Modified Equations T = imK
 = iMRT
Section 10.8 Colloids
• A suspension of tiny particles in some medium.
• Tyndall effect – scattering of light by particles.
• Suspended particles are single large molecules or aggregates
of molecules or ions ranging in size from 1 to 1000 nm.

In chemistry,
a colloid is
a mixture in which
one substance of
microscopically
dispersed insoluble
particles is
suspended
throughout another
44
substance.
PM2.5 in Many Cities is High
& Dangerous to Health

45
 46
Tyndall effect – scattering of light by particles
Under the Tyndall effect, the longer-wavelength light is more transmitted
while the shorter-wavelength light is more reflected via scattering.
In the scattered light, the short
wavelengths predominate, the
sky appears blue.

The fraction of the light which is

deviated by scattering increases with
increasing path length, so that at
sunset the shorter wavelengths are
depleted in direct sunlight and the sun
appears orange or red, depending on
the amount of haze or dust in the air.

47
A representation of two colloidal particles.
They repel each other. Representation at the
molecular level
Coagulation (凝結物)
• Destruction of a colloid.
• Usually accomplished either by heating or by adding an
48
electrolyte.