Sarah Alvanipour, CC BY-NC-SA 4.

Solutions (Colligative Properties) and Colloids

A. Solution: What are they?

 Solutions are homogenous mixtures, mixtures which have a uniform

consistency throughout and have the solute dispersed evenly in the
solvent.
o This means that if you took random samples of a solution, you should
find that in each sample, there is the same concentration.
o Parts of a solution
o Solute: component in smaller quantity
o Solvent: component in larger quantity
o Aqueous solutions are most common in inorganic chemistry, where
water is the solvent. Water is used as a solvent for polar solutes (ex.
NaCl in H2O)
o Solvents may also be nonpolar in nature, in which case they will
require nonpolar solutes to form a solution (ex. Naphthalene C 8H10 in
cyclohexane C6H12 or Br2 in CCl4)

B. Characteristics of solutions:
 Miscibility
 Interactions
 Temperature and Pressure Effects
 Extent of Solubility
 Concentration Extent of Solubility
 Electrolyte Effects (van’t Hoff Factor)
 Colligative Properties
Sarah Alvanipour, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

C. Miscibility (solubility): describes IF a solute and solvent are compatible and

will actually mix…does the solute dissolve in the solvent?

There are solubility rules that help to identify what salts are soluble in water. For
all other solutes, intermolecular forces of attraction (IMFA) are utilized.

Solubility also depends on intermolecular forces of attraction (IMFA),

which simply describe relationships between dipoles (partial charges) and
the “like dissolves like” principle. Those solutes and solvents with similar
IMFA will have types of attraction forces that will draw them and allow
them to mix. Those that do not will not dissolve. This is the premise behind
“oil and water don’t mix.” It’s because they have different IMFAs.

Quick difference between “intramolecular” forces also known as bonds,

and “intermolecular forces:”

 London/Dispersion Forces: typically occur between nonpolar

substances (C8H10 in C6H12)
 Dipole-Dipole: typically occur between polar substances (HCl in
H2O) Hint: look for H and O atoms for polarity!

 Ion-Dipole: typically occur between a dipole of a polar

substance and fully charged ion solutes (ex. NaCl in H 2O)

 Hydrogen Bond: occurs between hydrogen dipole and dipole of

fluorine, oxygen, and nitrogen (ex. HF in H 2O)

London Forces: Dipole-Dipole Interactions:

Sarah Alvanipour, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

Hydrogen Bonds:

All IMFA Figures

Flowers, P., Theopold, K., Langley, R., & Robinson, W. R. (2019). Liquids and Solids. In Chemistry 2e. OpenStax.
https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/10-1-intermolecular-forces

D. Interactions:

Solute-Solute: interactions that hold solute particle together (must break up)
Solvent-Solvent: interactions that hold solvent particle together (must break up)
Solute-Solvent: interactions that hold solute and solvent particles together

In order for a solution to form, solute-solute and solvent-solvent interactions must

be overcome and a desire for solute-solvent interactions to occur.
Sarah Alvanipour, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

“Formation of Solution” Sarah Alvanipour, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

solute and solvent separate solute and solvent combining

Flowers, P., Theopold, K., Langley, R., & Robinson, W. R.  (2019). Acid-Base Equilibria. In Chemistry 2e. OpenStax.
https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/15-1-precipitation-and-dissolution

Solute-Solvent Interactions > [Solute-Solute + Solvent-Solvent Interactions] =

Solution

Thus we must first separate the solute molecules and then the solvent molecules
so that they can then intermingle to form solute-solvent interactions. There must
be a favorable driving force for solute-solvent interactions to form in order to
make a solution.

1
Sarah Alvanipour, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

E. Temperature and Pressure Effect on Solubility: if when miscible with

one another, there is a limit to how much solute can be dissolved in a
given amount of solvent.
 Temperature Effects:
o For most solids in liquids, solubility increases with increases in
temperature. This is a directly proportional relationship.
o For all gases in liquids, solubility decreases with increases in
temperature. This is inversely proportional because when
heated, gases tend to want to disperse and move outward,
including out of the liquid’s surface in which they are dissolved.

 Pressure (for gases only): an increase in pressure above the solution

will proportionally increase the solubility of the gas (solute) in the liquid
(solvent): Henry’s Law
o Henry’s Law:
S gas = kPgas where the solubility of a gas is proportional to the
product of the gas constant and the pressure of the gas.

Force or pressure of a
piston pushing down on a
gas, thus  pressure, used to
 solubility of gas in solvent

“Sistema embolo piston” by Cristian Quinzacara, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons
Sarah Alvanipour, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

F. Extent of Solubility:

Saturation: refers to how concentrated a solution is.

Saturated solution: contains the maximum amount of solute dissolved in the

given quantity of the solvent for that temperature. Any further addition of solute
will precipitate or crystallize out of the solute.

Unsaturated solution: has not exhausted the extent of solubility; less

concentrated than saturated solution so has not reached maximum content of
solute.

Supersaturated solution: contains above the maximum amount of solute

dissolved in the given quantity of the solvent for that temperature. These are rare
and crystallization may occur at any time.

G. Concentration: amount of solute dissolved in a solvent. There are many

concentration units that are used.

 Molarity (M)
moles of solute
M=
liters of solution

Solutions may undergo dilution to less concentrated molarity by adding additional

solvent (increasing volume) using the equation M 1V1=M2V2.

 Molality (m)

moles of solute
m=
kg of solvent

Note: you may need to use density (if provided to convert volumes to
mass in grams and then to kg)

 Mass percentage (m/m%)

m mass of solute
%= x 100 OR
m mass of solute +solvent
m mass of solute
%= x 100
m mass of solution
Sarah Alvanipour, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

 Mole fraction (X)

moles of solute moles of solute

X= OR X =
moles of solute +moles solvent total moles of solution

Sample Problem:

A 21g sample of HCl is dissolved in 750 mL of a solvent (density= 1.3 g/mL and
molecular weight= 180 g/mol). Assume the volume of HCl is 21 mL. Calculate
the solution’s molarity, molality, mole fraction, and mass percentage.

Molarity:

moles solute
M=
liters of solution

Step 1: convert 21g HCl to moles HCl

1 mol HCl
21 g HCl x =0.575 mols HCl
36.5 g

Step 2: Convert mL of solvent and solute. Sum is the volume of solution

750 mL = 0.750 L
21 mL = 0.021 L

0.750 + 0.021 = 0.771

Step 3: Plug in and solve.

0.575 mols
M= =0.75 M
0.771 L

Molality:

moles of solute
m=
kg of solvent

Step 1: Convert 21 g of HCl to moles (0.575 mols)

Sarah Alvanipour, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

Step 2: Convert volume of solvent to mass of solvent using density

mass
density = thus ( d ) ( v ) =m
volume

(1.3 g/mL) (750 mL)= 975 g

Step 3: Plug in and solve

0.575 mols HCl

m= =0.59 m
0.975 kg

Mass Percentage:

m mass of solute
%
m mass of solution

Step 1: Find total mass of solution by adding mass HCl (21 g) and mass of
solvent (975 g).

21 g HCl + 975 g solvent= 996 g solution

Step 2: Plug in and solve

21 g HCl
%= x 100=2 %
996 g solution

Mole Fraction:

moles of solute
X=
total moles of solution

Step 1: Convert 21 g of HCl to moles (0.575 mols)

Step 2: Find moles of solvent based on mass (975 g) and molecular weight (180
g/mol)

1mol
975 g solvent x =5.42 mols solvent
180 g

Step 3: Add mols solute and mols solvent to find total mols of solution:

0.575 mols HCl + 5.42 mols solvent= 5.99 mols solution

Sarah Alvanipour, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

Step 4: Plug in and solve

0.575 mols HCl

X= =0.096
5.99 mols solution

H. Electrolyte Effect (van’t Hoff Factor)

 Electrolytes are substances that dissociate readily in an aqueous

solution to form ions and conduct electricity.
o Electrolytes may be weak (low ionization) or strong (100%
ionization).
o Nonelectrolytes may dissolve to form aqueous solutions but
they do not dissociate to form ions.
o The number of ions impacts colligative properties of
solutions proportionally. The greater the number of ions, the
more the effect. The number of ions produced in solution is
called the van’t Hoff Factor (i).

Electrolytes and van’t Hoff Factor

Solute Electrolyte? Equation when Hydrolyzed i value
(water added)
NaCl YES NaCl (s)  Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) 2
MgCl2 YES MgCl2 (s)  Mg2+ (aq) + 2Cl- (aq) 3
MgSO4 YES Mg SO4 (s)  Mg2+ (aq) + SO42- 2
(aq)
C6H12O6 NO C6H12O6 (s)  C6H12O6 (aq) 1

 Note: Count the # ions to determine van’t Hoff Factor

 Do not confuse polyatomic ions as more than 1 ion (ex. SO 42- is one
ion not 1 S and 4 O to make 5!)
 Nonelectrolytes have an i value of 1.
 If two electrolytes have the same or different “i” value, the stronger
electrolyte will have a greater impact on colligative properties than
its weaker counterpart.
o The extent of dissociation is what differentiates a strong from
a weak electrolyte. Thus the “i” value will have more impact
for a strong electrolyte than a weak one.
o HF (i= 2) has lesser impact than HCl (i=2) because HF is a
weak electrolyte while HCl is strong.

I. Colligative Properties: properties that are affected by the ratio of solute

particle to solvent particles (concentration and # ions) but not necessarily
Sarah Alvanipour, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

the chemical species present. So the quantity rather than identity of solute
is important.

 Vapor Pressure (pressure of liquid as it turns to gas or vaporized,

pushes up against atmospheric pressure)

o Is lowered in solution when compared to a pure solvent.

Thus, when solute is added (concentration is increased),
vapor pressure is lowered as the solute dissolved makes it
more difficult for solvent to vaporize and leave solution.
o Is dependent upon mole fraction concentration
o This is known as Raoult’s Law and expressed by the
equation below:

P1 = X1P10
P
1= partial pressure of solution
X1= mole fraction of solvent
P10= vapor pressure of pure solvent

Sealing off the flask

will:

 Pressure
 Solute solubility

Flowers, P., Theopold, K., Langley, R., & Robinson, W. R.  (2019). Solutions and Colloids. In Chemistry 2e.
OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/11-4-colligative-properties

Sample Problem:

What is the vapor pressure above a solution after 0.15 mole fraction of a solute is
added to the solvent. The normal vapor pressure of a pure solvent is 4.4 atm.

P1 = X1P10

Step 1: Find mole fraction of solvent using X solute. Note that the sum of all
fractions must equal 1.
Sarah Alvanipour, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

Xsolvent + X solute = 1

1 – 0.15 = 0.85= Xsolvent

Step 2: Plug in and solve

P1 = (0.85) (4.4 atm)

P1 = 3.74 atm

Notice how the new pressure (3.74 atm) is lower than the original (4.4 atm).

 Boiling Point: is elevated proportionally when solute is added

(concentration is increased) in solution when compared to a pure
solvent.
o This is related to vapor pressure. If VP is lowered (by
adding solute), then boiling point increases because the
solution needs to reach a higher temperature to compensate
for the lowered vapor pressure.
o Depends on the boiling point constant (Kb) which is unique to
each solvent and may be looked up in a reference table.
o Is dependent on molality concentration
o Can be summarized by following equation:

 Tb = iKbm

Application:
]

In a hurry for dinner? Don’t salt your

pasta water until it’s already boiled!

“Boiling Hot Water n Noodle” by Fandwisdoywci, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons

Sample List of Molal Boiling and Freezing Point Constants

Sarah Alvanipour, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

Normal Normal
Kb Kf Boiling Freezing
Solvent
(C/m) (C/m) Point Point
(C) (C)
Water 0.51 1.86 100 0
Ethanol 1.22 1.99 78.4 -114.6
Carbon tetrachloride 5.02 29.8 76.8 -22.3

Sample Problem:

Calculate the boiling point for a 0.25m aqueous solution (note: water is solvent)
of propylene glycol (a non-electrolyte).

Step 1: Calculate the change in the boiling point from having added this solute to
a pure solvent. Note the Kb value for the solvent water is 0.51 C/m. Since the
solute is a non-electrolyte, the van’t Hoff factor is 1.

 Tb = (1) (0.51 (C/m) (0.25 m)

 Tb= 0.128 C

Step 2: Since boiling point becomes elevated, add the change in boiling
temperature to the normal boiling point

100 C +  Tb = new Tb

100 + 0.128 = 100.128 C

NOTE: Equation calculates the CHANGE to the normal boiling point. To find the
NEW boiling temperature, SOLVE for  Tb then ADD the  Tb to the normal
boiling temperature since boiling point gets ELEVATED.

 Freezing Point: Is depressed proportionally when solute is added

(or concentration is increased) when compared to pure solvent.

o Dependent on molality concentration and Kf value unique to

each solvent.
o Can be summarized by following equation:

 Tf = iKfm
NOTE: Equation calculates the CHANGE to the normal freezing
point. To find the NEW freezing temperature, SUBTRACT the TF
Sarah Alvanipour, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

from the normal freezing temperature since freezing point gets

DEPRESSED.

Application:

Flowers, P., Theopold, K., Langley, R., & Robinson, W. R. Solutions and Colloids. (2019). In Chemistry 2e.
OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/11-4-colligative-properties

Sample Problem:

Step 1: Calculate the change in the freezing point from having added this solute
to a pure solvent. Note the Kf value for the solvent water is 1.86 C/m. Since the
solute is a non-electrolyte, the van’t Hoff factor is 1.

 Tf = (1) (1.86C/m) (0.25m)

 Tf = 0.465 C

Step 2: Since freezing point becomes depressed, subtract the change in freezing
temperature from the normal freezing point.

0 C –  Tf = new Tf
Tf =0 C – 0.465= -0.465 C

Sample Problem: How would the boiling and freezing points be different if the
solute was NaCl instead of propylene glycol? Assume all other values remain
constant.

Since NaCl is an electrolyte, its van’t Hoff factor (i) would be equal to 2; therefore
the  Tb and  Tf would both be doubled before being added and subtracted,
respectfully, from their normal values.That would make the results:

Tf =0 C – 0.93= -0.93 C

Tb= 100 + 0.256 = 100.256 C

 Osmotic Pressure (pressure required to resist osmosis from
occurring): Is increased proportionally when solute is added
(concentration is increased).
Sarah Alvanipour, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

o Dependent on molarity as concentration unit

o All values must be in units that reflect “R” the Ideal Gas Law
constant (R= 0.0821 L atm/mol K)
o Typically reported in units of atm (atmospheres) but may be
seen in Torrs or mmHg which should be converted to atm
using the conversion factor 760 Torrs or mmHg= 1 atm
o Summarized by the following two equations, where n/V
(moles/volume) may be substituted for molarity

π = iMRT

π=i ( Vn ) RT
Sample Problem:

A 0.50 g sample of a non-electrolyte is added to 500mL of a solution at 30°C to

achieve an osmotic pressure of 515 mmHg. What is the solute’s molecular
weight?

π=i ( Vn ) RT
Step 1: Convert osmotic pressure from mmHg to atm (to match units of R) using
conversion factor 760 mmHg= 1atm. Note that the conversion factor is the same
for Torrs and atm.
1 atm
515 mmHg x =0.68 atm
760 mmHg

Step 2: Convert temperature from Celsius to Kelvin to match units of R.

30 + 273 = 303 K

Step 3: Plug in an solve for moles (n).

0.68 atm=( 1 ) ( 0.5n L )(0.0821 L atm

mol )
K ( 303 K )
0.68 = 49.8 n
n= 0.013 moles

Step 4: Convert moles (0.013) to molecular weight in grams of solute. Use ratios
to help you solve for the mass of 1 mole (molecular weight) such that you know
0.013 moles is equivalent to the 0.5g of solute mentioned in the problem. This is
your conversion factor!
Sarah Alvanipour, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

0.013 mols= 0.5 g

1 mol = ?

0.5 g
1 mole x = 38.5 g/mol
0.013 mol

 Background information on osmosis

o Osmosis is movement of water down its concentration
gradient meaning that water (not solutes) flows from an area
of higher water concentration to lower water concentration to
create balance.
o This can be rephrased such that solvent particles (water) will
move from the less concentrated (dilute, where water if
plentiful) solution to the more concentrated solution (where
there water is in low concentration)

 Osmosis is a passive process and requires no energy

Thus in order to stop osmosis, pressure must be
applied—osmotic pressure
 Osmotic pressure is proportional to the concentration
and # ions. The greater they are, the greater the
tendency of water to move and thus the more
pressure required to withstand it.

Flowers, P., Theopold, K., Langley, R., & Robinson, W. R.  (2019). Solutions and Colloids. In Chemistry 2e.
OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/11-4-colligative-properties

o Defining concentration of solutions:

Sarah Alvanipour, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

 Isotonic: equal concentration of solutions on both

sides of the membrane and thus same osmotic
pressure.
 Effect on cells: none (no water movement)
 Hypotonic: solution with lower concentration and
lower osmotic pressure; solvent (water) will leave to
cross to the hypertonic section.
 Effect on cells: cells will swell and potentially
burst (lyse) due to water movement in
 Hypertonic: solution with higher concentration and
osmotic pressure; solvent (water) will enter here from
the hypotonic section.
 Effect on cells: cells will shrivel (crenate) as
water exits when placed in a hypertonic

“Osmotic Pressure of Blood Cells” by LadyofHats, Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

J. Entropy: level of disorder or chaos. Formation of a solution increases

entropy because it takes two ordered substances and intersperses them
to create less order.
K. Enthalpy: heat at constant pressure. Solution formation may be
 Exothermic: heat is generated/released (ex. Calcium chloride in
water)
 Endothermic: heat is absorbed from surroundings
 Enthalpy: For solution to form, Hsolution = Hsolute + Hsolvent

L. Colloids: suspensions rather than solutions in which solute is partially

dissolved in solvent and requires agitation (shaking to get particles to
redistribute throughout the solvent).

2
Sarah Alvanipour, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

 Colloidal particles are larger than molecules and ions of true

solutions but too small to settle out of the suspension by
gravity alone.
 A child’s antibiotic would be a good example. Others are
fog, whipped cream/mousse, or an emulsion such as
Caesar’s dressing and butter.

Flowers, P., Theopold, K., Langley, R., & Robinson, W. R.  (2019). Solutions and Colloids. In Chemistry 2e.
OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/11-5-colloids