Engr. MARK KENETH C.

SUMBILLO
Special Science Teacher I
Subject Teacher
 is a , at the
molecular level, of two or more substances

is formed when one substance disperses

throughout another
The ability of substances to form solutions
depends on two factors:

1. the of substances to
mix and spread into larger volumes when
not restrained (i.e., 𝝆, S.T., T) in some way

2. the types of interactions

involved in the solution process
The processes by which
molecules mix with and
spread into water are
important for many events.
 in in
your bloodstream the ocean
 is dissolved in another substance

is the substance dissolving solute and

is always in greater amount

are solutions where the

solvent is water

is the interaction between solute and

solvent molecules

is the interaction between solute

and water molecules as solvent
Three kinds of intermolecular interactions are
involved:

interactions between solute

particles must be overcome to disperse the
solute particles through the solvent

interactions between
solvent particles must be overcome to make
room for the solute particles in the solvent.

interactions between the

solvent and solute particles occur as the
particles mix.
As a solid solute begins to dissolve in a solvent,
the concentration of solute particles in solution
increases, increasing the chances that some
solute particles will collide with the surface of
the solid and .
 is the process
opposite of the solution process
 is the of the
solute that can dissolve in a given amount of
the solvent at a specified temperature,
assuming that excess solute is present

Example:
The of NaCl in water at 0°C is
35.7 g per 100 mL of water.

This is the maximum amount of NaCl that

can be dissolved in water to give a stable
equilibrium solution at that temperature.
Three kinds of Solutions based from Saturation

is a solution that is in
equilibrium with undissolved solute

is a solution with dissolved

solute less than the amount needed to form
a saturated solution

is a solution that
contains a greater amount of solute than
needed to form a saturated solution
The stronger the attractions between solute
and solvent molecules, the greater the
solubility of the solute in that solvent.
 Liquids that mix in all
proportions, such as
acetone and water, are
, whereas those
that do not dissolve in one
another are .

Gasoline, which is a mixture of hydrocarbons,

is immiscible with water.
Hexane is the top
layer because it is
less dense than
water.
Glucose (C6H12O6) has five OH
groups on a six-carbon
framework, which makes the
molecule very soluble in water:
830 g dissolves in 1.00 L of water
at 17.5 °C.
Cyclohexane (C6H12), which
has a similar structure to
glucose but with all of the OH
groups replaced by H, is
essentially insoluble in water
(only 55 mg of cyclohexane
can dissolve in 1.00 L of water
at 25 °C).
Vitamin C and the B vitamins are soluble in
water, whereas vitamins A, D, E, and K are
soluble in nonpolar solvents and in fatty
tissue (which is nonpolar).
The solubilities of solids and liquids are not
appreciably affected by pressure, whereas the
solubility of a gas in any solvent is increased as
the partial pressure of the gas above the
solvent increases.
CO2 bubbles out of
solution when a
carbonated beverage is
opened because the
CO2 partial pressure
above the solution is
reduced.
Divers who use
compressed gases must
be concerned about the
solubility of the gases in
their blood.
Divers must ascend slowly to prevent dissolved
gases from being released rapidly from solution
and forming and other
fluids in the body.
These bubbles affect nerve impulses and cause
, or “the bends,” which
is a painful and potentially fatal condition.
Nitrogen is the main problem because it is the
most abundant gas in air and because it can be
removed from the body only through the
respiratory system.
Oxygen, in contrast, is consumed in metabolism.
 Sg = k Pg
Here,
Sg is the solubility of the gas in the solvent
(usually expressed as molarity),
Pg is the partial P of the gas over the solution,
k is a proportionality constant known as the
Henry’s Law Constant.

The value of this constant depends on the

solute, solvent, and temperature.
Sample Problem

Calculate the concentration of CO2 in a soft drink

that is bottled with a partial pressure of CO2 of 4.0
atm over the liquid at 25°C. The Henry’s law
constant for CO2 in water at this temperature is
3.4x10.−𝟐 mol/L-atm.
SCO2 = k∙PCO2
= (3.4x10.−𝟐 mol/L-atm)(4.0 atm)
= 0.14 mol/L
= 0.14 M
The solubility of most solutes in water
increases as the solution temperature
increases.
There are exceptions to this rule, however, as seen for Ce2(SO4)3,
whose solubility curve slopes downward with increasing
temperature.

In contrast to solid solutes, the solubility of

in water decreases with increasing
temperature.
The solubilities are in
millimoles per liter of
solution, for a constant
total pressure of 1 atm
in the gas phase.
Why doesn’t NaCl dissolve in nonpolar
solvents such as hexane, C6H14?

NaCl is a ionic compound ( ) and

therefore will not mix with hexane.
What happens if a solute is added to
a saturated solution?

It will become
 Suppose the hydrogens on the OH groups in
glucose were replaced with methyl groups,
CH3. Would you expect the water solubility of
the resulting molecule to be higher than, lower
than, or about the same as glucose?

The solubility will be glucose.

 Why do bubbles form on the inside wall of a
cooking pot when water is heated on the stove,
even though the water temperature is well below
the boiling point of water?

The solubility of gas solute is and is

causing molecules to escape from
solution not yet in its boiling point.
You double the partial pressure of a gas over a
liquid at constant temperature. Which of these
statements is then true?

a. The Henry’s law constant is doubled.

b. The Henry’s law constant is decreased by half.
c. There are half as many gas molecules in the liquid.
d. There are twice as many gas molecules in the liquid.
e. There is no change in the number of gas molecules in
the liquid.
d. There are twice as many gas
molecules in the liquid.
Concentrations of solutions are expressed
in terms of either

(1) the amount of present in a

given mass (of solute per 100 mass
units of) or volume of , or

(2) the amount of dissolved in a

given mass or volume of
Concentration is a ratio in one of two forms:
𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
1. 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
2. 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡+𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒)
Concentration expressions:

1. Percentage expressions, %

2. Molarity, M

3. Molality, m

4. Mole Fraction, 𝛘

5. Normality, N
1. % 𝒘𝒘 of solute = 𝒈 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒈(𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆+𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕)
𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
x 100

2. % 𝒘𝒗 of solute = 𝒎𝑳𝒈 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
x 100

3. % 𝒗𝒗 of solute = 𝒎𝑳
𝒎𝑳 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
x 100

4. ppm = 𝒈𝒈𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
x 106 ppm = 𝟏 𝒎𝒈
𝑳

5. ppb = 𝒈𝒈𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
x 109
Sample Problem 1: Percent of Solute
Calculate the mass of nickel (II) sulfate, NiSO4,
contained in 200 g of a 6.00% solution of NiSO4.

𝟔.𝟎𝟎 𝒈 𝑵𝒊𝑺𝑶𝟒
g NiSO4 = 200 g sol’n 𝟏𝟎𝟎.𝟎 𝒈 𝒔𝒐𝒍′𝒏
= 12.0 g NiSO4
Sample Problem 2: Mass of Solute
Calculate the mass of NiSO4 present in 200 mL of
a 6.00% solution of NiSO4. The density of the
solution is 1.06 g/ml at 25℃.

𝟏.𝟎𝟔 𝒈 𝒔𝒐𝒍′𝒏 𝟔.𝟎𝟎 𝒈 𝑵𝒊𝑺𝑶𝟒

g NiSO4 = 200 mL sol’n 𝟏.𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝑳 𝒔𝒐𝒍′𝒏 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒈 𝒔𝒐𝒍′𝒏
= 12.72 g NiSO4
Sample Problem 3: Percent Solute and Density
What volume of a solution that is 15.0% iron (III)
nitrate contains 30.0 g Fe(NO3)3? The density of
the solution is 1.16 g/ml at 25℃.

𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒈 𝒔𝒐𝒍′𝒏 𝟏 𝒎𝑳 𝒔𝒐𝒍′𝒏

mL sol’n = 30 g Fe(NO3)3 𝟏𝟓.𝟎 𝒈 𝑭𝒆 𝑵𝑶 𝟏.𝟏𝟔 𝒈 𝒔𝒐𝒍′𝒏
𝟑 𝟑

= 172.41 mL
M
Molarity is the number of moles of solute per liter
of solution.

M = 𝐕𝐧 where n = 𝐌𝐌
𝐦

𝐦
𝐦
M= 𝐌𝐌
𝐕𝐋
= 𝐌𝐌 ∙ 𝐕𝐋

Note: For dilution process, M1V1 = M2V2

Sample Problem 1: Molarity
Calculate the molarity (M) of a solution that
contains 3.65 g of HCl in 2.00 L of solution.
𝟑.𝟔𝟓 𝒈
M= 𝒈
𝟑𝟔.𝟓 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝟐.𝟎𝟎 𝑳 𝒔𝒐𝒍′𝒏
𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑯𝑪𝒍
= 0.0500 or M
𝑳 𝒔𝒐𝒍′𝒏
Sample Problem 2: Mass of Solute
Calculate the mass of Ba(OH)2 required to
prepare 2.50 L of a 0.0600 M solution of barium
hydroxide.

g Ba(OH)2 = 2.50 L sol’n x

𝟎.𝟎𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑩𝒂(𝑶𝑯)𝟐 𝟏𝟕𝟏.𝟑 𝒈 𝑩𝒂(𝑶𝑯)𝟐
𝟏 𝑳 𝒔𝒐𝒍′𝒏 𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑩𝒂(𝑶𝑯)𝟐
= 25.7 g Ba(OH)2
m
Molality is the number of moles of solute
per kg of solvent.
𝒎
𝒎
m = 𝒌𝒈 𝒏
= 𝑴𝑴
=
𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒌𝒈𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝐌𝐌 ∙ 𝒌𝒈𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕
Sample Problem
What is the molality of a solution prepared by
dissolving 10.0 g of I2 in 100 g of CCl4?
𝛘
Mole fraction is the ratio of the number of moles
of a component to the total number of moles in
the solution.
𝐧𝐀
𝛘𝐀 = 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐀
𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐀 + 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐁
=
𝐧𝐓

𝐧𝐁
𝛘𝐁 = 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐁
𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐀 + 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐁
= 𝛘𝐁 = 1 – 𝛘𝐀
𝐧𝐓
Sample Problem
What is the mole fraction of glucose in a 20% by
weight solution of glucose in H2O?
N
Normality is the number of moles of solute per
liter of solution.

N = 𝐧𝐨.𝐨𝐟 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐯.𝐨𝐟
𝐕
𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞
𝐋

𝒎 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝐦
no. of equiv. of solute = = 𝐌𝐌
𝑬.𝑾. 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
𝐡

where h is the no. of replaceable H+ (acids)

no. of replaceable OH- (bases)

charge of cation or anion (salt)

𝐦 ∙𝐡
N= = h∙M
𝐌𝐌 ∙ 𝐕𝐋
Sample Problem
How many grams of sulfuric acid, H2SO4, are
needed to prepare 450 mL of acid solution that is
0.50 N in reaction where both H ions are
replaced?