Term Definition

Element Substance that can’t be broken down into simpler substances

Atom Smallest unit of an element
Compound Substance made it chemically combining two or more elements – it has different properties
from its constituent elements
Atomic Number (Z) Number of protons in the atom
Mass Number (A) The number of protons and the number of neutrons in an atom
Isotope Atoms of the same element with different mass numbers
Relative Atomic Mass Average Mass of an atom of the element, taking into account all of it’s isotopes and their
relative abundance compared to one atom of carbon-12
Wavelength Distance between two successive crests
Frequency (v) Number of waves which pass a point in a second
Absorption spectrum Shows the radiation absorbed as atoms move from a lower to a higher energy level
Emission Spectrum Produced when an atom moves from higher to a lower level
Continuous Spectrum Shows an unbroken sequence of frequencies, such as the spectrum of visible light
Line emission spectrum Only has certain frequencies of light as it is produced by excited atoms and ions as they
back to a lower energy level
Line absorption Continuous spectrum expects for certain colours which are absorbed as the atoms are
spectrum excited to higher energy levels
Ionization energy Energy needed to remove an electron from the ground state of an atom in a mole of
gaseous atoms
First Ionization Energy Minimum energy needed to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of gaseous
atoms in their ground state
Atomic Orbital Region around a nucleus in which there is a 90% probability of finding the electron
Cations Number of protons greater than electrons
Anions Number of electrons greater than protons
Atomic Structure
Equations
Relative Atomic average mass Total Mass (aka Isotope * abundance) +etc) / number of atoms
Wavelength & Frequency C=v × λ)
Energy od photon of light emitted ∆ E electron=h × v
Number of sub-levels at nth main energy level N

Number of orbitals ay nth energy level N2

Number of electrons at nth energy level 2n2
Number of orbitals at lth sub-level (2L+1) where s=0, p=1, d=2, f=3

John Dalton’s ideas:

- All matter is composed of particles called atoms
- Atoms can’t be created or destroyed
- Atoms of the same element are alike in everyway
- Atoms can combine together in small numbers to for molecules

Rutherford’s model of the atom

- Disproved Thomson’s model: Plum Pudding – negatively charged electrons scattered in a positively charged
sponge-like substance
o Tested Thomson’s model by firing alpha particles at a piece of gold foil.
o The alpha particles are helium nuclei composed of 2 protons & 2 neutrons with a positive charge
o Emitted by nuclei with too many protons to be stable
 o If Thomson’s model was correct – the alpha particles should pass straight through or get stuck in the
positive sponge
o Result: Most particles did not pass though, very few were repelled and bounced back
Conclusion: large number of undeflected particles means that the atom is mainly empty space. Large
deflections happen when positively charged alpha particles collide and they are repelled by a dense
positively charged center – the nucleus. Only a few particles bounced back we can say the nucleus Is small

Sub-atomic particle
Sub-atomic Particle Relative Mass Relative charge
Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0
Electron 0.0005 -1

Bohr Model of the atom

- Electrons move in orbit around + δ nucleus of one proton
- Electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely charge sub-atomic particles prevent the electron from
leaving the atom
- Nuclear radius 10-15 and atomic radius is 10 -10 m & most volume is empty space
All electromagnetic waves
Mass Spectrometer travel at the same speed (c)
Use: to measure the mass of individual atoms
Produce: Mass spectra (Horizontal axis shows mass/charge ration on the carbon-12 scale)

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic Wave Frequency Energy Wavelength
UV High High Short
Blue/Purple
Red
Infrared Low Low Long

Line Spectrum: Production

- White light passed through hydrogen gas - line spectrum is produced with some colours of the continuous
spectrum missing
- With high voltage applied to the gas, corresponding emission line spectrum is produced
- Colours present in the emission spectrum are the same as those that are missing from the absorption spectra
- Different elements have different line spectra

Evidence for Bohr Model: Hydrogen Spectra

1. Electron is excited by flame or
2. Atom absorbs energy and electron moves to higher energy level further away from the nucleus
3. As the excited state is unstable, electron falls back to ground state releasing energy
4. The energy the electron releases is in the form of electromagnetic radiation
5. Photon is released for each electron transition

Note! Energy of the Photon of Light emitted = ∆ Energy of atoms

∆ E electron=h × v
Line Spectra shows that atoms emit photons of certain energies that give lines of certain frequencies
because the electron can only occupy certain orbitals.
Energy
The of atom
Hydrogen is quantized – line spectrum is evidence, as if not the emission spectrum would be
Spectrum
continuous
 electron at n=∞  the atom and has
Hydrogen produces: been ionized
Level electron fall to
n=1 ultraviolet region (Lyman Series) & higher Lines converge at higher energies
energy change Reason: the energy levels inside the
n=2 visible light & Balmer series atoms are closer together at higher
n=3 or more Infrared radiation is produced (Paschen energy
Series)

Bohr model failed to explain spectral lines of atoms with more than one electron
Resulted in: Bohr and Wave model used together
- Diffraction of light that occurs when light passes through a small slit; explained by wave model
- Scattering of electrons that occur when light is incident on a metal surface; explained by model of light
∴ diffraction pattern produced when a beam of electrons is passed through a thin sheet of graphite shows the wave
the
properties of electrons.

The Uncertainty Principle

Problem with Bohr: Assumes the electrons placing can be described precisely
Reason: If you try to measure an electron’s position it will disturb its motion seen, as using radiation it will give the
electron a random kick that sends it in a random direction
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle: It unknown where an electron is at a given moment, we can only be likey on where
the electron is

Schrodinger model of the hydrogen atom

Model: When an electron is in an orbital of higher energy it will have a higher probability of being found further from
the nucleus
Reason: Wave equation used to describe the behaviour of an electron, as well used to describe the behaviour of light
results in atomic orbitals

Atomic Orbital
s Spherical, surrounding the nucleus
p Dumbbell shape, 3 degenerate p orbitals (with equal energy) difference in their orientation is
special z, y, x
d
f

Sub-levels Pauli Exclusion Principle: no more than

Level Sub-level Maximum Maximum two electrons can occupy any one orbital,
Number of number of and if two electrons are in the same
electrons in electrons in orbital they must spin in opposite
sub-level level directions.
n=1 1s 2 2
n=2 2s 2 8 Hund’s third rule: if more than one orbital
2p 6 in a sub-level is available, electrons occupy
n=3 3s 2 18 different orbitals with parallel spins
3p 6
3d 10
n=4 4s 2 32
4p 6 Aufbau Principle: used to determine the
4d 10 electron configuration of the ground state
4f 14 atom of an element. States that electrons
are placed into orbitals of lowest energy
first.
Energy of Orbital
- Dependent on the attraction between the electrons and the charge and inter-electron repulsions
- 3d and 4s are very close in energy and their relative separation is sensitive to inter-electron repulsion
- After Ca: 4s filled before 3d, once the 3d sub-level is occupied the 3d electrons push the 4s electrons to higher
energy
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 (Before Ca)
Exception:
Electron configuration Chromium: [Ar]3d5 4s1
- When the transition metal atoms form ions they lose electrons from Copper: [Ar]3d104s1
the 4s-sublevel before the 3d Reasoning: 4s and 3d sub-levels are
- electrons are lost from outer sub-levels close in energy, as both 3d are very
- when positive ions are formed for transitional metals, the outer 4s stable (being half/fully filled) this
electrons are removed before the 3d electrons minimizes the electrostatic repulsion
X(g)  X+(g) + e-
Ionization Energy
- Once electron removed from the atom the electron is an infinite distance away from the nucleus (n= ∞ )
- As energy levels converge at higher energy, the ionization energy can be calculated from the convergence limit
at higher frequencies

Trend in Successive Ionization Energies

- Increase and jumps when electrons are removed from levels closer to the nucleus
- Reason: increasing attraction between the higher charged positive ions and the oppositely charged electrons
makes it more difficult for the outer electron to be removed

Trend in first ionization energy

Across Period: ↑ from left  right

Reason: Nuclear charge ↑, as electrons are removed from the same energy level there is an ↑ in the force of
electrostatic attraction between the nucleus and outer electrons

Down a group: ↓
Reason: as atomic radius ↑, distance between the nucleus and outer electrons ↑ the attractive pull of the
nucleus decreases less energy is required to remove outer e -

Exception
Decrease in first ionization energy
between Be & B (Period 2) +
between Mg & Al (Period 3)
Decrease in first ionization energies
between N & O (Period 2) +
between P & S (Period 3)
Reasoning
Group 2 elements have ns2 & Group 3 has ns2n1
Group 13, ionizes p electron is removed - Group 2 ionizes s electron is
removed
Electrons in p-orbitals have higher energy and are further away from the
nucleus than s - are easier to remove than electrons in an s orbital hence to for
IE of Mg + Be more energy is needed
Group 15 elements have configuration with s2 p3 and 16 have s2 p4.
Group 16 the electron is removed from the doubly occupied 2p orbital, which
is repelled by its partner and is therefore easier to remove than an electron in
a half-filled orbital

Scanning Tunnelling Microscope (STM): Ultra-fine tip scans a surface and records a signal as the tip move up and down
depending on atoms present, used for feeling atoms. Also, a physical technique for manipulating individual atoms