S1 Module I-notes Part II

The two major concepts that contributed to the development of the quantum mechanical
model are i) de Broglie concept of the dual nature of matter and ii) the Heizenberg’s
uncertainty principle.

Dual nature of matter and de Broglie relation

According to Louis de Broglie, all particles of matter such as electrons exhibit a wave
character along with its particle character during its motion. It is called dual nature of matter.

The wave length (λ) of such a matter wave is given by

h h
λ= mv or λ = p

where ‘h’ = the Planck’s constant, m= mass of the particle v = velocity of the particle, p = its
momentum. This equation is known as de Broglie’s equation for wavelength of matter wave.

Problem 1.

Calculate the wavelength of the electron moving with a velocity of 2.18 ×106 m/s . Mass
of the electron is 9.109 ×10−31 kg .

h
Ans: wave length λ=
mv

Planck’s constant ( h )= 6.626 x 10-34 j s

Mass of the electron = 9.109 ×10−31 kg

velocity of electron= 2.18 ×106 m/s

h 6.626 ×10−34
∴ wave length λ=
−10
= =3.337 ×10 m
mv 9.109 ×10−31 ×2.18 × 106

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Problem 2

Calculate the momentum of a particle which has a de Broglie wave length 2.5 ×10−10 m

h
Ans: wave length λ=
p

h 6.626 ×10−34
∴ momentum p= =
−24 −1
=2.6504 × 10 kgm s
λ 2.5 ×10 −10

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

According to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle it is impossible to determine

simultaneously the exact position and the momentum of a small moving particle like an
electron.

This principle is mathematically expressed as

h
( Δx ) ( Δp )≥
4π

Where ∆x is the uncertainty in position and ∆p is the uncertainty in momentum.

It means ,the product of the uncertainty in position and the uncertainty in momentum is a
constant. Here, the product of two variables is constant. Therefore, if one value is small, the
other becomes large. If the uncertainty in position is small, the uncertainty in momentum
becomes large and vice versa. (It means, when one value is determined correctly, the other value
becomes uncertain)

momentum ( p )=mass ( m ) × velocity ( v )∨ p=mv

∴ ∆ p=∆ mv=m ∆ v

So the uncertainty principle can also be written as

h h
∆ x ×m× ∆ v ≥ ∨∆ x ×∆ v ≥
4π 4 πm

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Problem 1: Calculate the uncertainty in the position of a particle if the uncertainty in momentum
is1.2 ×10−3 kg m s−1.

h
Ans: ∆ x ×∆ p= here ∆ p=1.2× 10−3 kg m s−1
4π

Planck’s constant ( h )= 6.626 x 10-34 j s

h 6.626 ×10−34 −32

∆ x= = =4.396 ×10 m
4 π ∆ p 4 ×3.14 × 1.2×10−3

Problem 2: The uncertainty in position and velocity of a particle are 1.2 ×10−10 mand

5.2 ×10−24 m s−1 respectively. Calculate the mass of the particle. (h = 6.626 x 10-34 j s )

h h
Ans: ∆ x ×m× ∆ v= ∨m=
4π 4 π ∆x ×∆v

Planck’s constant ( h )= 6.626 x 10-34 j s

∆ x=1.2 ×10−10 m∧∆ v=5.2 ×10−24 ms−1

h 6.626 × 10−34 −2
m= = =8.454 × 10 kg
4 π ∆ x ×∆ v 4 ×3.14 × 1.2× 10 × 5.2× 10
−10 −24

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 Distinction between orbit and orbital

No Orbit Orbital
Orbits are circular paths for electrons to Orbitals represent the location of electron in
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revolve around the nucleus. an atom based on probability.
Orbits are represented by K,L,M,N,O . They are s, p ,d and f orbitals
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etc
3 All orbits are circular. Orbitals may have different shapes
Orbitals may have directional characteristics.
4 Orbits have no directional characteristics. Only s orbital has no directional
charecteristics.
All orbits are planar. Orbitals have different three dimensional
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shapes.
6 It is based on Bohr model It is based on quantum mechanical model.
It doesn’t conform to the Heizenberg’s It conforms to the Heizenberg’s Principle
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Principle
Maximum number of electrons in an Maximum number of electrons in an orbital=2
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orbit= 2n2

Quantum numbers

Quantum numbers are a set of four numbers used to indicate, the principal energy level
(shell), the sub energy level(subshell), the orbital and spin of an electron in an atom.

They are i) principal quantum number(n) ii) subsidiary quantum number or

azimuthal quantum number(l) iii) magnetic quantum number-(m) iv)spin
quantum number(s)

i) principal quantum number(n) :

Its value indicates the principal energy level (shell or orbit) of the electron.

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For example, n = 3 indicates M shell

The maximum number of electrons in an orbit = 2n2

Value of n 1 2 3 4
Name of shell
K L M N
(orbit)
Max no.of
electrons(2n2) 2 8 18 32

ii) subsidiary quantum number or azimuthal quantum number(l)

Its value indicates the sub energy level (subshell) of the electron. For example, l = 1 indicates p
sub shell

It takes value from 0 to (n-1). The value of l depends on the value of n.

Value of l 0 1 2 3
Name of
s p d f
subshell
Max no.of
electrons 2 2 6 10 14
(2l+1)

The azimuthal quantum number (l) has integral values ranging from 0 to n-1)

( l = 0 => s subshell , l = 1 =>p subshell , l = 2 => d subshell , l = 3 => f subshell )

So when n=1, l=0 => only one subshell for the K shell, it is the 1s subshell

If n=2, l=0, 1 => two subshells for the L shell, they are 2s and 2p subshells

n=3, l=0,1,2 => three subshells for the M shell, they are 3s,3p and 3d subshells

n=4, l=0, 1, 2, 3 => four subshells of the N shell, they are 4s,4p,4d and 4f subshells

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iii) magnetic quantum number-(m) :

Its value indicates the orbital number of the electron in a sub shell. For example, m = -1,0,+1
means Px, Py and Pz orbitals in p sub shell

The number of orbitals present in s, p, d and f sub shells are different. However all the orbitals
in a sub shell have same energy. Value of m indicates the orbital of the electron in a sub shell.

The values of ‘m’ depend on the value of ‘l’. There can be 2l+1 integral values between –l and
+l including 0 .

thus when

l = 0 means m = 0 it means only one orbital for the s subshell

l=1 means m = -1,0,+1 means Px,Py and Pz orbitals in p sub shell

subshells l values m values No.of orbitals

s 0 0 1

p 1 -1,0,+1 3

d 2 -2,-1,0,1,2 5

f 3 -3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3 7

iv) spin quantum number(s) :

Its value indicates the spin of the electron. +½ indicates clockwise spin and -½ indicates anti
clockwise spin.

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 All electrons in an atom can be identified or labeled by these four numbers. So quantum
numbers are the code numbers to identify electrons in an atom.

Labeling of subshell
n value shell l =0 to n-1 subshell
/orbitals

1 K 0 s 1s

2 L 0, 1 s, p 2s, 2p

3 M 0, 1, 2 s, p, d 3s, 3p, 3d

4 N 0, 1, 2, 3 s, p, d, f 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f