ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Prof. Dr. Maqsood Ahmad (T.I., T.B.)

Preston University
Islamabad Campus
 ATOMS AND ATOMIC
STRUCTURE

Prof. Dr. Maqsood Ahmad (T.I., T.B.)

Preston University
Islamabad Campus
 LIFE AND ATOMS
Every time you breathe, you are
taking in atoms.
Oxygen atoms to be the exact
example. These atoms react with
the blood and are carried to every
cell in your body for various
reactions you need to survive. Like
wise, every time you breathe out
carbon dioxide atoms are released.
The cycle here is interesting.
TAKING SOMETHING IN.
ALLOWING SOMETHING OUT!
 The Atom
Probably we already know an
atom is the building block of all
matter. It has a nucleus with
protons and neutrons and an
electron cloud outside of the
nucleus where electrons are
orbiting and MOVING
 WHAT IS AN ATOM?

 The smallest unit of an

element.

 Consists of a nucleus in the

center surrounded by
electrons.
WHAT IS THE NUCLEUS?
 The central part of an
atom.
 Composed of protons
and neutrons.
 Contains most of an
atom's mass.
 WHAT IS A PROTON?

 Positively charged particle

 Found within an atomic
nucleus. 1.6022 x 10-19 c
 Mass 1.6726 x 10-27 kg
WHAT IS A NEUTRON?

 Uncharged particle

 Found within an atomic

nucleus.
WHAT IS AN ELECTRON?

 Negatively charged
particle.

 Located in shells that

surround an atom's
nucleus.
Nitrogen
The Three Physicists
Louie de Broglie
Erwin Schrodinger
Werner Karl Heisenberg

Quantum Mechanical Model

 Quantum mechanics
• Examines the wave motion of
objects

Atomic orbital
• Specified by 4-quantum numbers
 Quantum Numbers
 According to Heisenberg’s Uncertainty
Principle, it is not possible to give the
exact position of an electron and its
energy at the same time.

 But the PROBABILITY of finding an

electron in an orbital of given energy
can be determined.
 The 4 Quantum Numbers
 Principal Quantum Number, n

 Azimuthal Quantum Number, l

 Magnetic Quantum Number, ml

Spin quantum number, S =±1/2

 Principal Quantum
Number,n
 Main energy level of an orbital.

 Indicates the relative size of the orbital

 An increase in n also means increase

in the energy of the electron in the
orbital.
 n= 1, 2, 3….
 Principal Quantum Number,n
 Main energy level of an orbital.

 Indicates the relative size of the orbital

 An increase in n also means increase in

the energy of the electron in the orbital.
n= 1, 2, 3….
 Azimuthal Quantum Number
 Also called Angular Momentum
Number

 Defines the shape of the orbital.

 Values range from 0 to n-1.

l=n-1
Azimuthal Quantum Number

l Sublevel Orbital Shape

0 sharp - s spherical

dumbbell-
1 principal - p
shaped

2 diffused - d cloverleaf

3 fundamental - f too complex

S- orbital
• Spherical shape with the nucleus at its
center
P-orbital
• “dumb-bell shape”
D-orbital
• With 5 different orientations
D-orbital
• With 5 different
orientation
 Azimuthal Quantum Number
 A sublevel in a particular main energy
level is defined by its n and its l
values.
l Kind of
n
Sublevel

1 0 1s

2 1 3p
Sublevel and Capacity of Each Main
Energy Level
Main No. of Identity of No. of Max. No. of
Energy Sublevel Sublevels Orbitals Electrons
Level (n2) (2n2)

1 1 1s 1 2
2s 1 2
2
2p 3 6
2
3s 1 2
3 3 3p 3 6
3d 5 10
4s 1 2
4p 3 6
4 4
4d 5 10
4f 7 14
Electron Filling Order
As energy is RELEASED the electron can relax
by moving to a new energy level or rung down
the ladder
ENERGY LEVELS
EXCITATION :When the electron
travels from energy level to higher
energy level.
If an electron is EXCITED, that
means energy is ABSORBED
And therefore a PHOTON is
ABSORBED.
DE-EXCITATION
If an electron is DE-EXCITED, that
means energy is RELEASED and
therefore a photon is released.
QUANTUM LEAPS : We call these
leaps from energy level to energy
level, QUANTUM LEAPS.
Since a PHOTON is emitted that
means that it MUST have a certain
wavelength
whereas 1J=6.24* 1018 eV
 VIRAL THEOREM
• In a system of charges where there is only
electrostatic force of attraction and
repulsion there is a very simple relation
between the average P.E and K.E and
overall E
• K.E=-1/2P.E
• E=K.E+P.E
• E=-1/2P.E+P.E= 1/2P.E
21.4 COULOMB’S LAW
The equation giving the
electrostatic force for charged
particles is called Coulomb’s
law:

The SI unit of charge is the

coulomb.
The electrostatic constant is K

The quantity e0 is called the permittivity

constant
 Brownian Motion
It is a kind of random motion that
shifts in steady increments.
The term Brownian motion:
the physical phenomenon that minute
particles immersed/suspended in a fluid
will experience a random movement
the mathematical models used to
describe the physical phenomenon.
 Brownian Motion: Discovery

• Discovered by
Scottish botanist
Robert Brown in
1827 while
studying pollens of
Clarkia (primrose
family) under his
microscope
 ROBERT BROWN

• Robert Brown’s
main claim to fame
is his discovery of
the cell nucleus
when looking at 20 orchid epidermal cells
showing nuclei (and 3 stomata)
cells from orchids seen under Brown’s original
under his microscope preserved by the
Linnean Society London
microscope
 Brown’s Microscope
• And Brownian motion of milk globules in water
seen under Robert Brown’s microscope
 Brown’s Observations
• At first Brown suspected that he might have been
seeing locomotion of pollen grains (I.e. they move
because they are alive)
• Brown then observed the same random motion for
inorganic particles…thereby showing that the
motion is physical in origin and not biological.
• Word of caution for the Mars Exploration program:
Lesson to be learned here from Brown’s careful
experimentation.
 1827-1900
• Desaulx (1877):
– "In my way of thinking the phenomenon is a
result of thermal molecular motion (of the
particles) in the liquid environment”
• G.L. Gouy (1889):
– observed that the "Brownian" movement
appeared more rapid for smaller particles
 F. M. Exner (1900)
• F.M. Exner (1900)
 First to make quantitative studies of the
dependence of Brownian motion on particle size
and temperature
 Confirmed Gouy’s observation of increased
motion for smaller particles
 Also observed increased motion at elevated
temperatures
 Albert Einstein

• Worked out a quantitative

description of Brownian
motion based on the
Molecular-Kinetic Theory
of Heat
• Published as the third of 3
famous three 1905 papers
• Awarded the Nobel Prize
in 1921 in part for this.
 Historical Context
• Einstein’s analysis of Brownian Motion and
the subsequent experimental verification by
Jean Perrin provided 1st “smoking gun”
evidence for the Molecular-Kinetic Theory of
Heat
• Kinetic Theory is highly controversial around
1900…scene of epic battles between its
proponents and its detractors
 Brownian Motion
• Movement of
smoke cells
were observed
under the
microscope
• Random
motion
• The motion is due to
the collisions of the
(invisible) air
molecules with the
much larger
particles of smoke.
• Heating the cell
makes the smoke
particles' motion
even more violent
due to the increased
velocity of the air
molecules.
 KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

• Uses a structural model based on the ideal

gas model
• Combines the structural model and its
predictions
• Pressure and temperature of an ideal gas are
interpreted in terms of microscopic variables

51
 Molecular-Kinetic Theory

• All matter are made of molecules (or atoms)

• Gases are made of freely moving molecules
• U (internal energy) = mechanical energy of the
individual molecules
• Average internal energy of any system:
U=nkT/2, n = no. of degrees of freedom
• Boltzmann: Entropy S=klogW where W=no. of
microscopic states corresponding to a given
macroscopic state
 Ludwig Boltzmann (1844-1906)
Committed
suicide in 1906.
Some think this
was because of
the vicious
attacks he
received from
the Scientific
Establishment
of the Day for
his advocacy of
Kinetic Theory Boltzmann’s
tombstone
in Vienna
 Structural Model Assumptions

• The number of molecules in the gas is large, and the average

separation between them is large compared with their
dimensions
 The molecules occupy a negligible volume within the
container
 This is consistent with the macroscopic model where we
assumed the molecules were point-like

54
 Structural Model Assumptions
• The molecules obey Newton’s laws of motion, but as a whole their
motion is isotropic
 Any molecule can move in any direction with any speed with equal
probability
• Meaning of isotropic
• At any given moment, a certain percentage of molecules move at high
speeds, a certain percentage move at low speeds, and a certain
percentage move at speeds intermediate between high and low.
• The molecules undergo elastic collisions with each other and with the
walls of the container. Thus, in the collisions, both kinetic energy and
momentum are constant.
• The forces between molecules are negligible except during a collision.
The forces between molecules are short-range, so the molecules
interact with each other only during collisions.
• The gas under consideration is a pure substance. That is, all of its
molecules are identical. 55
 IDEAL GAS

• An ideal gas is often pictured as consisting of single atoms

• However, the behavior of molecular gases approximate that
of ideal gases quite well
 Molecular rotations and vibrations have no effect, on
average, on the motions considered

56
19.2 Avogadro’s Number
Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro (1776-1856) suggested that all gases
occupy the same volume under the condition of the same temperature, the
same pressure, and the same number of atoms or molecules. => So, what
matters is the ‘number’ .

One mole is the number of atoms in a 12 g sample of carbon-12.

The number of atoms or molecules in a mole is called Avogadro’s Number,
NA.

If n is the number of moles contained in a sample of any substance, N is the

number of molecules, Msam is the mass of the sample, m is the molecular
mass, and M is the molar mass, then
 Pressure and Kinetic Energy

• Assume a container with

volume V containing N
molecules in a cube
– Edges length d
• Look at the motion of the
molecule in terms of its
velocity components
• Look at its momentum
and the average force

58
 Pressure of an ideal gas in a container
• Consider the collision of one molecule moving with a
velocity v toward the right-hand face of the box.
• The molecule has velocity components vx, vy, and vz . m is
the mass of one molecule.
• As the molecule collides with the wall elastically, its x-
component of velocity is reversed, while its y and z
components of velocity remain unaltered.
• Because the x-component of the momentum of the
molecule is mvx before the collision and -mvx after the
collision, the change in momentum of the molecule is
∆px = -mvx - (mvx) = -2mvx

59
Assume perfectly elastic collisions with the walls of the
container.
The relationship between the pressure and the molecular kinetic
energy comes from momentum and Newton’s Laws

60
 Pressure of an ideal gas in a container
Applying the impulse–momentum theorem
F∆t = ∆px = -2mvx
• where F is the magnitude of the average force exerted by the
wall on the molecule in the time ∆t.
• The molecule must travel a distance 2d in the x-direction to
collide twice with the same wall.
• Therefore, the time interval between two collisions with the
same wall is
∆t = 2d/vx
• Over a time interval that is long compared with ∆t, the
average force exerted on the molecule for each collision is
F1 = ∆px/ ∆t = (-2mvx)/(2d/vx) = -mvx2/d
• According to Newton’s third law, the average force
exerted by the molecule on the wall is equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction to the force
F, on wall = -F = - (-mvx2/d) = = mvx2/d
61
 Pressure of an ideal gas in a container
• Each molecule of the gas exerts a force F1 on the wall. We find
the total force F exerted by all the molecules on the wall by
adding the forces exerted by the individual molecules:
F = m(vx12 + vx22 + . . . .)/d
• vx1 is the x-component of velocity of molecule 1, vx2 is the x
component of velocity of molecule 2, and so on. The
summation terminates when we reach N molecules because
there are N molecules in the container.
• The average value of the square of the velocity in the x-
direction for N molecules is
(vx2)average = (vx12 + vx22 + . . . .+ vxN2)/N
N(vx2)average = (vx12 + vx22 + . . . .+ vxN2)
• Thus, the total force exerted on the wall can be written
F = (Nm/d) (vx2)average

62
 Pressure of an ideal gas in a container
• Now let us focus on one molecule in the container whose velocity
components are vx , vy , and vz . The Pythagorean theorem relates
the square of the speed of this molecule to the squares of these
components:
V2 = vx2 + vy2 + vz2
• Hence, the average value of v2 for all the molecules in the
container is related to the average values of vx2, vy2, and vz2
according to the expression
(V2average ) = (vx2average) + (vy2average) + (vz2average)
• Because the motion is completely random, the average values of
vx2, vy2, and vz2 are equal to each other.
• Using this fact and the previous equation, we find that
(V2average ) = 3(vx2)average
(Vx2)average = 1/3 (v2average)
• Thus, the total force exerted on the wall is
F = (N/3d)(mv2average)

63
 Pressure of an ideal gas in a container
• Using this expression, we can find the total pressure exerted on
the wall:
P = F/A = F/d2 = 1/3(N/d3)(mv2 average )
= 2/3(N/V)(1/2mv2average)
• This result indicates that the pressure is proportional to the
number of molecules per unit volume and to the average
translational kinetic energy of the molecules, (1/2mvaverage2)
• This relates the large-scale quantity of pressure to an atomic
quantity— the average value of the square of the molecular
speed.
• One way to increase the pressure inside a container is to increase
the number of molecules per unit volume in the container.
• The pressure can also be increased by increasing the average
translational kinetic energy of the air molecules in the container.

64
 Molecular Interpretation of Temperature
• Consider the equation
P = 2/3(N/V)(1/2mv2average)
PV = 2/3(N/V)(1/2mv2average)(V) = 2/3(N)(1/2mv2average)
• Let us now compare this with the equation of state for an ideal gas
PV = NkBT
2/3(N)(1/2mv2average) = NkBT
T = 2/3(1/kB)(1/2mv2average)
• That is, temperature is a direct measure of average molecular kinetic
energy.
(1/2mv2average) = 3/2kBT, 1/2kBT = (1/2mv2average/3)
Now (Vx2average) = 1/3(v2average )
(1/2mvx2average) = 1/2kBT
• Similarly, the motions in the y and z directions give us
(1/2mvy2average) = 1/2kBT
And (1/2mvz2average) = 1/2kBT

65
 Theorem of equipartition of energy
• Thus, each translational degree of freedom contributes an
equal amount of energy to the gas, namely 1/2kBT
• In general, “degrees of freedom” refers to the number of
independent means by which a molecule can possess
energy.
• A generalization of this result, known as the theorem of
equipartition of energy, states that each degree of freedom
contributes 1/2kBT to the energy of a system.
• The total translational kinetic energy of N molecules of gas is
simply N times the average energy per molecule
Etrans = N(1/2mv2average) = 3/2NkBT = 3/2nNA(R/NA)T
= 3/2nRT
• As kB = R/NA and n = N/NA for the number of moles of gas.

66
 Root-mean-square speed
• This result implies that the internal energy of an ideal gas depends
only on the temperature.
• The square root of v2average is called the root-mean-square (rms)
speed of the molecules.

(1/2mv2average) = 3/2kBT

mv2average = 3kBT v2average = 3kBT /m

Vrms = sq.rt (v2average) = sq.rt(3kBT/m) = sq.rt(3RT/M)

• where M is the molar mass in kilograms per mole.
• This expression shows that, at a given temperature, lighter
molecules move faster, on the average, than do heavier
molecules.

67
 Root Mean Square Speed
• The root mean square (rms) speed is the
square root of the average of the squares of
the speeds
– Square, average, take the square root
• Solving for vrms we find
___
3 kBT 3 RT
v rms  v 
2

m M
• M is the molar mass in kg/mole

68
 Law of Dulong and Petit
• For small displacements of an atom from its equilibrium position,
each atom executes simple harmonic motion in the x, y, and z
directions.
• The energy associated with vibrational motion in the x direction is
E = 1/2mvx2 + 1/2kx2
• The expressions for vibrational motions in the y and z directions are
analogous. Therefore, each atom of the solid has six degrees of
freedom. According to the equipartition theorem, this corresponds to
an average vibrational energy of
6(1/2kBT )= 3kBT per atom
• Therefore, the total internal energy of a solid consisting of N atoms is
Eint = 3NkBT = 3nRT
• The molar specific heat of a solid at constant volume is
dEint = nCvdT, Cv = 1/n(dEint/dt) = 3R

69
 DuLong-Petit Law
• At high temperatures, the molar specific heats
approach the value of 3R
• This occurs above 300 K
• The molar specific heat of a solid at high
temperature can be explained by the equipartition
theorem
Each atom of the solid has six degrees of freedom
The internal energy is 3nRT and Cv = 3R

70
 Mean Free Path

• The molecules move with constant speed

along straight lines between collisions
• The average distance between collisions
is called the mean free path
• The path of an individual molecule is
random
The motion is not confined to the plane of the
paper
 Mean Free Path
• A molecule moving through
a gas collides with other
molecules in a random
fashion
• This behavior is sometimes
referred to as a random-
walk process
• The mean free path
increases as the number of
molecules per unit volume
decreases
The mean free path
Notion of the mean free path
 A molecule moving through a gas
collides with other molecules in a random
fashion.
 Between collisions, the molecules move with constant
speed along straight lines. The average distance between
collisions is called the mean free path.
1.12 Van der Waals Equation of State
To get a more realistic model of a gas, we include
the finite size of the molecules and the range of
the intermolecular force beyond the size of the
molecule.
The mean free path for a gas molecule
 Consider N spherical molecules with radius r in a volume
V. Suppose only one molecule is moving.
 When it collides with another molecule,
the distance between centers is 2r.
 In a short time dt a molecule with speed v
travels a distance vdt ; during this time it
collides with any molecule that is in the
cylindrical volume of radius 2r and length
vdt.
 The volume of the cylinder 4 r 2vdt
:
The number of the molecules with centers in this
cylinder : 2 N
dN  (4 r vdt )
V dN N
The number of collisions per unit time :  (4 r 2v )
dt V
dN N
When all the molecules move at once :  2(4 r 2v )
dt V
 The average time between collisions (the mean free time)
1 V
t mean  
N 2(4 r 2v )N
2(4 r 2v )
V
 The mean free path (the average distance
traveled between collisions) is

V
  vt mean 
4 2 r 2N

 For the ideal-gas : PV  NkT

 kT
  vt mean 
4 2 r 2P
 Mean Free Path

• The mean free path, ℓ, equals the average

distance vavgΔt traveled in a time interval Δt
divided by the number of collisions that occur in
that time interval:

v t 1
 
 d v  t  nV  d nV
2 2
 Mean Free Path
• The mean free path is related to the
diameter of the molecules and the density of
the gas
• We assume that the molecules are spheres of
diameter d
• No two molecules will collide unless their
paths are less than a distance d apart as the
molecules approach each other
 Collision Frequency

• The number of collisions per unit time is the

collision frequency:

ƒ   d vn V
2

• The inverse of the collision frequency is the

collision mean free time
 Van der Waal’s Equation
• The simplest model of a liquid-gas phase
transition - the vander Waals model of “real”
gases – give some essential features of this phase
transformation. (Note that there is no such
transformation in the ideal gas model).

• In particular, vander Waals he was able to explain

the existence of a critical point for the vapor-liquid
transition and to derive a Law of Corresponding
States (1880).

• In his Nobel prize acceptance speech, van der

Waals give the qualitative agreement of his theory
with experiment as a major victory for the
atomistic theory of matter – stressing that this
view had still remained controversial at the turn of
the 20th century!
 The van der Waals Model
short-distance
repulsion The main reason for the transformation of
4
gas into liquid at decreasing T and (or)
U(r) 3 increasing P is due to the interaction
2 between the molecules.
Energy

0 Two ingredients of the model:

-1
the weak long-range attraction: the
-2

-3
long-range attractive forces between the
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 molecules tend to keep them closer
r
distance
together; these forces have the same
r= effect as an additional compression of
long-distance the gas. N 2a
6 attraction Peff  P 
   
12
V2
U r        - THE CONSTANT A IS A MEASURE OF
r r THE LONG RANGE ATTRACTION
the strong short-range repulsion: the molecules are rigid: P   as
soon as the molecules “touch” each other.
- the constant b (~ 43/3) is a measure of the short-range
Veff  V  Nb repulsion, the “excluded volume” per particle

 N 2a  N 2a
 P  2 V  Nb  NkBT
NkBT
P  2 The vdW equation
 V  V  Nb V of state
Thank you very much
for your patience