PERIODIC TABLE

Periodic Table

Periodic Table is a tabular arrangement of the

chemical elements organized on the basis of
their atomic number, electronic configurations
and recurring chemical properties
Development of the
Periodic Table
 Lavoisier classification of elements
• In 1789, Antoine Lavoisier published a list of elements. He
classified the elements into 4 groups

1. Elastic fluids: light, heat, oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen

2. Nonmetals: Sulfur, phosphorus, carbon, HCl, HF, H3BO3

3. Metals: Antimony, arsenic, bismuth, silver, cobalt, copper, tin,

iron, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, nickel, gold,
platinum, lead, tungsten, zinc

4. Earths: Salt forming earthy solid elements including lime,

magnesium oxide, barium oxide, aluminium oxide and silicon
dioxide
 Dobereiner’s law of Triads
• The first chemist to recognize patterns was Johann
Dobereiner (1780–1849), who found several groups of
three elements that have similar properties

• He observed that many of elements could be grouped

into triads based on their chemical properties

• When arranged by atomic weight, the 2nd member of

each triad was roughly average of 1st and 3rd

• This became known as law of triads

Johann Dobereiner’s Triads (1817)
 Newlands law of octaves
• In 1866, an English chemist John Newlands arranged
the elements in an order of increasing atomic weights

• He found that every 8th element had the physical and

chemical properties similar to that of 1st, in a way similar
to the musical scale, which repeats for every 8th tone.

• It is known as Newlands law of octaves

• This model managed to group several elements with

small atomic weights, but failed in the case of elements
with large atomic weights.
 Newlands table of elements

Newlands law could classify elements up to calcium only. After calcium every
eighth element did not possess properties similar to that of the first. The elements
that were discovered later could not be fitted into the octave pattern.
Mendeleev’s periodic table
• In 1869, a Russian chemist Mendeleev created the first
accepted version of the periodic table

• He made a thorough study of the relationship between

atomic weights of the elements and their physical and
chemical properties.

• He constructed a table in which the elements were

arranged in the order of increasing atomic weights

• He found that every 8th element had the properties similar

to the 1st one. Thus, there was a periodic occurrence of
the elements with similar properties
 FIGURE 7.24
Mendeleev’s periodic table
Mendeleev’s early periodic table, published in 1872. Note the spaces left for missing elements with atomic masses
44, 68, 72, and 100.
(From Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie, VIII, Supplementary Volume for 1872, page 511.)

TABLE 7.3 Comparison of the Properties of Germanium

as Predicted by Mendeleev and as Actually Observed
Properties of Predicted Observed in
Germanium in 1871 1886
Atomic weight 72 72.3
Density 5.5 g/cm3 5.47 g/cm3
Specific heat 0.31 J/(!C ! g) 0.32 J/(!C ! g)
Melting point Very high 960!C
Oxide formula RO2 GeO2
Oxide density 4.7 g/cm3 4.70 g/cm3
Chloride formula RCl4 GeCl4
bp of chloride 100!C 86!C

TABLE 7.4 Predicted Properties of Elements 113 and 114

Property Element 113 Element 114

Chemically like Thallium Lead

• In his periodic table, Mendeleev left gaps for the Atomic mass
Density
297
16 g/mL
298
14 g/mL

elements yet to be discovered Melting point

Boiling point
430!C
1100!C
70!C
150!C

• He also predicted the properties of these elements

• Mendeleev was also able to correct the atomic
masses of several elements.

• For example, the original atomic mass of Indium (76)

was based on the assumption that Indium oxide had
formula InO. This atomic mass placed indium among
nonmetals

• Mendeleev assumed that this atomic mass was

incorrect and proposed the formula of Indium oxide to
be In2O3. Based on this correct formula, atomic mass
was found to be 113, placing the Indium among
metals
 The modern periodic law
• Henry Moseley in 1911 suggested that it was the
charge of the nucleus and not the atomic weight that
accounted for the periodic trends in the properties
of the elements. Thus, the position of elements in the
periodic table is showed by the atomic number

• This concept gave rise to the Modern Periodic Table

• The properties of the elements are the periodic

functions of their atomic numbers — Modern
periodic law
 Modern periodic table
The Modern Periodic Table

Alkali metals Chalcogens Noble gases

Alkaline earth metals Halogens
 Features of the periodic table
• The periodic table is divided into horizontal rows called PERIODS or
SERIES and the vertical columns are called GROUPS or FAMILIES

• Periods are assigned in Arabic numerals 1 to 7

• Families/groups are assigned in Roman numerals (paired with A or

B) IA to VIIIA and IB to VIIIB. There are 18 vertical columns

• First period consists of only two elements (very short period)

• Second and third periods consist of 8 elements each (short periods)

• Fourth and Fifth periods consist of 18 elements each (long periods)

• Sixth period consists of 32 elements (long period)

• Seventh period is yet incomplete and more and more elements are
likely to be added as the scientific research advances
 Features of the periodic table
• Group 1 elements are called alkali metals except H

• Group 2 elements are called alkaline earth metals

• Group 3 to 12 elements are called Transition Metals

• Group 16 elements are called Chalcogens

• Group 17 elements are called Halogens

• Group 18 elements are called Noble Gases

• Elements with atomic numbers 58 to 71 are called Lanthanoids or Inner

Transition elements (First series)

• Elements from atomic numbers 90 to 103 are called actinoids – Inner

Transition elements (Second series)

• All elements except transition and inner transition elements are also
collectively called Main Group Elements or Representative Elements
 Characterisation of elements into s,p,d and f
blocks
• Elements are easily differentiated from
one another because of differences in
the number of their outer most
electrons

• The first 2 columns to the right of the

periodic table fill up the ns orbitals
and are referred to as s-block
elements

• The last 6 columns fill up the np

orbitals and are called the p-block
elements

• Between the s-block and the p-block

elements are 10 columns which fill up • The period and groups of an element can be
the (n-1)d orbitals. These are the d- predicted from the electron configuration of that
block elements element

• On the lower part of the Periodic Table
are two series of elements which fill up
the (n-2) f orbitals and are called the f-
block elements
• The outermost energy of the element corresponds
to its period (that is n)
• If the electron configuration of the element ends in
s or p, then the element belongs to family A;
otherwise, the element belongs to family B
 Bohr’s atomic model
• Neils Bohr first of all gave the concept of quantised energy
levels called orbits

• According to which, electrons revolve around the nucleus

in definite energy levels called orbits, without radiating
energy

• Bohr calculated radius of these allowed orbits by using

tomic Structure and Periodicity
classical physics
or joules. Although we will not show the derivation here, the most important equation to come
• Hefrom
also calculated the expression for energy levels
Bohr’s model is the expression for the energy levels available to the electron in the
available to the electrons in the hydrogen atom
hydrogen atom:
2
Z
E ! $2.178 # 10$18 J a 2 b (7.1)
n

in which n is an integer (the larger the value of n, the larger is the orbit radius) and Z is
n= an integer (principal quantum number), Z= nuclear charge
the nuclear charge. Using Equation (7.1), Bohr was able to calculate hydrogen atom en-
ergy levels that exactly matched the values obtained by experiment.
 -RH 1
1

Quantum mechanical model

other one-electron situations* such as He+, Li2+, and Be3+. A fundamental characteristic of
ctron situations* such as He+, Lithe2+electron—its
, and Be3+wave . A fundamental
nature—needed to characteristic
be considered. of
The de Broglie equation, proposed in the 1920s,10 accounted for the electron’s wave nature.
—its wave nature—needed to beAccording considered.
to de Broglie, all moving particles have wave properties described by the equation
oglie equation, proposed
• Louis in
de Broglie the 1920s, 10
gave the accounted
concept forofthe electron’s wave
wave-particle nature.
duality
14 Chapter 2 | Atomic Structure h
de Broglie,
massive all moving
enough to be particles
visible have haveverywaveshort
properties described
wavelengths, tool by the equation
=small
mu to be
ctrons, on the other hand, have observable Particles massive
waveenough to be visible
properties have very
because of short
theirwavelengths, too small to be
h Electrons, on the lother
measured. = wavelength of the particle
hand, have observable wave properties because of their
ss. = small mass.
l very h = Planck constant
mu
moving in circles around the nucleus, Electronsas in Bohr’s
moving in circles
m = theory,
around can
mass ofthe be thought
thenucleus,
particle as in Bohr’s theory, can be thought
g waves thatlcan be described of as
bystanding
the dewaves that can
Broglie be described
equation. by the de Broglie
However, we equation. However, we
= wavelength of the particle u = velocity
no longer believe that it is possible of the the
to describe particle
motion of an electron in an atom so
eve that it ishpossible
= Planck to describe
constant theThis
precisely. motion of an electron
is a consequence of anotherin fundamental
an atom so principle of modern physics,
* Multiplying R by Z2, the square of the nuclear
s is a consequence of
•mHeisenberg’s
another fundamental
Heisenberg’s principle
uncertainty
H principleof modern
charge,
,11 which states physics,
andthat
adjusting
theretheisreduced mass accordingly
a relationship between provides
the an
= mass11 of theuncertainty
particle principle:
equation that describes
inherent uncertainties these more It’s
exoticimpossible
in the location toofdetermine
one-electron situations.
and momentum an electron. The accurately
x componentboth of
uncertainty principle, whichthis states that there is a relationship between the
the momentum and position
uncertainty of an electron
is described as simultaneously at any given point in
rtainties in the = velocity
u location andofmomentum
the particleof an electron. The x component h of
time !x !px Ú
ty is described as 4p
by Z2, the square of the nuclear charge, and hadjusting the reduced !x = uncertainty in the position of the electron
mass accordingly provides an
!x !p Ú
cribes these more exotic one-electronxsituations. !px = uncertainty in the momentum of the electron
4p
!x = uncertaintyTheinenergy of spectralof
the position lines
thecanelectron
be measured with high precision (as an example, recent
emission spectral data of hydrogen atoms in the solar corona indicated a difference between
- 1 12
!p = uncertaintynh =
in 2 and
the n =
momentum
l 1 of 82258.9543992821(23)
of the electron cm )! This in turn allows precise deter-
x
• Therefore we cannot
mination treat the electrons
of the energy of electrons in asatoms.
simpleThis particles with their
precision in energy motion
also implies preci-
spectral linesdescribed sionwith
precisely
can be measured in momentum ( !px is small);
high precision (as antherefore,
example,according to Heisenberg, there is a large
recent
uncertainty in the location of the electron ( !x is large). This means that we cannot treat
tral data of hydrogen atoms in the solarascorona
electrons indicated
simple particles with atheir
difference between
motion described precisely, but we must instead
• We consider the wave properties
= 1 of 82258.9543992821(23) - 1
cm the)!
consider 12 This
wave in of
properties ofelectrons
turn characterised
allowscharacterized
electrons, precise deter- byof auncertainty
by a degree certainin their
degree in
e energy of electrons of atoms.
uncertainty
location. Ininother
This their
precision location
words,
ininstead of being able to describe precise orbits of electrons, as in
energy also implies preci-
the Bohr theory, we can only describe orbitals, regions that describe the probable location
ntum ( !px is small); therefore, according
of electrons. to Heisenberg,
The probability of finding there is a atlarge
the electron a particular point in space, also
the location of the electron ( called
!x isthelarge).
electronThis densitymeans
, can be that we cannot
calculated—at least intreat
principle.
 the Bohr theory, we can only describe orbitals, regions that describe the probable location
of electrons. The probability of finding the electron at a particular point in space, also
Quantum mechanical model
called the electron density, can be calculated—at least in principle.

• 2.2Thedescribed
Schrodinger Schrödinger Equation
the wave properties of electrons by formulating a
1927, Schrödinger13 and Heisenberg11 published papers on wave mechan-
In 1926 and equation
mathematical
ics, descriptions of the wave properties of electrons in atoms, that used very different
mathematical techniques. In spite of the different approaches, it was soon shown that their
• Thistheories
equation wereis based on
equivalent. Schrödinger’s differential𝚿,
a wave function whichare
equations describes the electron
more commonly used to
waveintroduce
in spacethe theory, and of
in terms we positions,
will follow that practice.
mass, total energy ( kinetic plus potential
energy)The Schrödinger equation describes the wave properties of an electron in terms of
its position, mass, total energy, and potential energy. The equation is based on the wave
function, ", which describes an electron wave in space; in other words, it describes an
• The simplest form of Schrodinger wave equation is :
atomic orbital. In its simplest notation, the equation is
H" = E"
H = Hamiltonian operator
E = energy of the electron
" = wave function
The Hamiltonian operator, frequently called simply the Hamiltonian, includes deriva-
tives thatisoperate on mathematical * When the Hamiltonian is carried out, the result
the wave function.instructions.
• Operator a set of When it is applied to the wave
is a constant
function, (thetotal
it gives energy) times ".
energy ofThe
theoperation canrepresented
electron be performed onby
anyE.wave function
*An operator is an instruction or set of instructions that states what to do with the function that follows it. It may be

• a simple instruction
By solving such as “multiply
Schordinger wave the following
equation,function by 6,” orsolutions
many it may be muchare
moreobtained.
complicated than the
Each
Hamiltonian. The Hamiltonian operator is sometimes written Hn with the n (hat) symbol designating an operator.
solution consists of a wave function 𝚿 , characterised by a particular value of E

• A specific wave function is called an atomic orbital

 Quantum numbers
• Instead of precise circular orbits, we describe orbitals : the regions
that describe the probable location of electrons

• Atomic orbitals are regions of space around the nucleus of an atom

where an electron is likely to be found

• Atomic orbitals are discrete solutions of the three dimensional

Schrodinger equations

• In mathematical terms, each of the wave functions obtained by

solving Schrodinger wave equation is described by a set of integers
called quantum numbers

• These 4 quantum numbers are a: Principal quantum number (𝑛), b:

angular momentum quantum number (𝑙), c: magnetic quantum
number (𝑚𝜄), d: electron spin quantum number (𝑚𝑠)

• Each quantum number specifies a physical property of an electron

 Principal quantum number (𝑛)

• Principal quantum number has integral values: 1, 2, 3, ………..

• It describes the size and energy of the orbital

• As 𝑛 increases, radius increases, orbital becomes larger, electron spends more time away
from the nucleus

• An increase in 𝑛 also means higher energy, because electron is less tightly bound to the
nucleus and the energy is less negative

• All orbitals having the same value of 𝑛 are said to be in the same shell (level)

2
• The total number of orbitals for a given value of 𝑛 is 𝑛

• For H atom with 𝑛 = 1, electron is in its ground state

• All orbitals with the same value of 𝑛 have the same energy—they are said to be degenerate
 Angular momentum quantum number (𝑙)
• It specifies the shape of an orbital with a particular principal
quantum number

• Angular momentum quantum number divides the shells into

smaller groups of orbitals called subshells (sublevels)

• 𝑙 has integral values from 0 to 𝑛-1 for each value of 𝑛

• The value of 𝑙 for a particular orbital is commonly assigned a letter:

hapter Seven Atomic Structure and Periodicity
𝑙 = 0 is called s, 𝑙=1 is called p and so on

TABLE 7.1 The Angular Momentum Quantum Numbers and

Corresponding Letters Used to Designate Atomic Orbitals
Value of / 0 1 2 3 4
Letter Used s p d f g

• The value of 𝑙 also has a slight effect on the energy of the subshell,
the
bitals per Subshell energy of the
TABLE 7.2 subshell increases
Quantum Numbers with
for the First 𝑙 (s
Four < of
Levels p Orbitals
< d <inf)the
s!1 Hydrogen Atom
 Magnetic quantum number (𝑚𝜄)

• It specifies the orientation in space of an orbital of a given energy

(𝑛) and shape (𝑙)

• The magnetic quantum number (𝑚𝜄 ) has integral values between +𝑙

and -𝑙 (𝑚𝜄 = -𝑙,……0,…. +𝑙)

• This number divides the subshell into individual orbitals which hold
the electrons

• There are 2𝑙+1 orbitals in each subshell (m = 2𝑙+1)

• Thus, s subshell has only one orbital, the p subshell has three
orbitals, and so on.
 TABLE 7.1 The Angular Momentum Quantum Numbers and
Corresponding Letters Used to Designate Atomic Orbitals
Value of / 0 1 2 3 4
Letter Used s p d f g

ubshell TABLE 7.2 Quantum Numbers for the First Four Levels of Orbitals in the
Hydrogen Atom
Orbital
n / Designation m/ Number of Orbitals

1 0 1s 0 1
2 0 2s 0 1
1 2p "1, 0, #1 3
3 0 3s 0 1
1 3p "1, 0, 1 3
2 3d "2, "1, 0, 1, 2 5
4 0 4s 0 1
1 4p "1, 0, 1 3
2 4d "2, "1, 0, 1, 2 5
3 4f "3, "2, "1, 0, 1, 2, 3 7

! ! 1 is called p; ! ! 2 is called d; ! ! 3 is called f. This system arises from early

spectral studies and is summarized in Table 7.1.
The magnetic quantum number (m!) has integral values between ! and "!,
including zero. The value of m! is related to the orientation of the orbital in space
relative to the other orbitals in the atom.
 nucleus (Fig. 1.14). This represen
2s orbital has a high probability of being
close to the nucleus on account of the inner
Shape of s orbital
maximum.
z
z

y y

x
x px

Figure 1.14 The boundary surfaces of

s orbital:
Figure 1.13 spherical
The spherical shape surface
boundary nucleus. For example, the nodal plane o
of an s orbital. amplitude, the more darkly shaded one
• The boundary surface of an orbital indicates the space within which the
electron is most likely to be found (probability distribution)
• In mathematical term, it is called angular wave function
• An s orbital has the same amplitude at a given distance from the nucleus
• s orbital is spherically symmetrical
• The planes on which the angular wave function passes through zero are
called angular nodes or nodal planes
• An electron will not be found anywhere on a nodal plane
• In general, an orbital with the quantum number 𝑙 has 𝑙 nodal planes
• An s orbital, with 𝑙 = 0, has no nodal planes and the boundary surface of
the orbital is spherical
The radial distribution
cal representation, the boundary surfaces of the three p orbitals of a given shell are identi-
ydrogenic orbitals. Although
cal apart from the fact that their axes lie parallel to each of the three different Cartesian
is on average closer to the
axes centred on the nucleus, and each one possesses a nodal plane passing through the
Shape of p orbital
where its maximum lies), the
a high probability of being
ucleus on account of the inner
nucleus (Fig. 1.14). This representation is the origin of the labels px, py, and pz, which are

z z z
z
+
- + y
y y
y +
x
x -
x
px py pz

Figure 1.14 The boundary surfaces of p orbitals.

p orbitals: dumbEach orbital has one nodal plane running through the
bell shape
The spherical boundary surface nucleus. For example, the nodal plane of the p orbital is the xy-plane. The lightly shaded lobe has a positive
l. amplitude, the more darkly shaded one is negative.
• The p orbitals are not spherical like s orbitals but have two lobes separated
by a node at the nucleus
• Each p orbital, with 𝑙 = 1, has a single nodal plane
• The p orbitals are labeled according to the axis of the xyz coordinate system
along which the lobes lie
• For example, the 2p orbital with lobes centered along the x axis is called the
2px orbital
• The p orbital functions have different signs in different regions of space
• For example, the pz orbirtal has a positive sign in all the regions of space in
which z is positive and has a negative sign when z is negative.
• Whereas, the functions for s orbitals are positive everywhere in three-
dimensional space
 y
x
Shape of p orbital
dx2–y2
dz 2
z
Figure 1.15 One representation of the
boundary surfaces of the d orbitals. Four
of the orbitals have two perpendicular
nodal planesythat intersect in a line passing
x
through the nucleus. In the dz2 orbital, the
nodal surface forms two cones that meet at
dzx dyz dxy thednucleus. dx2–y2
z2

d orbitals: double dumb-bell shape

z

• There are in fact five possible combinations of double dumb-bell shaped

x orbitals y around three axes f y3–3yx2
f 5z3–3zr2 f d zx
d yz
5xz2–3xr2
• Three with lobes between the axes, as in df , d , and d 5yz2–yr2
xy yz zx

• Two with lobes along the axis, as in d and d z2

z Figure 1.16 One representation of the
x2-y2

• The d orbital can be thought of as the superposition boundary

z2 of twosurfaces
contributions, one
of the f orbitals. Other
representations (with different shapes) are
withf lobes along the
zx2–zy2
f z and x axes
xyz f
and the other with lobes along the z and y
also sometimes encountered.
x3–3xy2
axes x
f
y fy3–3yx2
f
• A d orbital with 𝑙 = 2 has two nodal planes that intersect at the nucleus of
5z3–3zr2
5xz2–3xr2

ternatives to the use of m to label the individual orbitals. Each p orbital, with l ! 1, has a
orbital l
ngle nodal plane.
• A typical
The boundary surfaces and labels we 𝑙use
f orbital =for3 the
has three
d and nodal
f orbitals planes
are shown in Figs 1.15
nd 1.16, respectively. The dz2 orbital looks different from the remaining d orbitals. There fzx2–zy2 fxyz
fx3–3xy2
e in fact six possible combinations of double dumb-bell shaped orbitals around three
 1s
" 2. The d orbitals (! " 2) first occur in level n " 3. The five 3d orbitals have the
2s shapes shown in Fig. 7.16. The d orbitals have two different fundamental shapes. Four
of the orbitals (dxz, dyz, dxy, and dx2!y2) have four lobes centered in the plane indicated in
(a) 3s
the orbital label. Note that dxy and dx2!y2 are both centered in the xy plane; however, the
lobes of dx2!y2 lie along the x and y axes, while the lobes of dxy lie between the axes.
The fifth orbital, dz2, has a unique shape with two lobes along the z axis and a belt cen-
tered in the xy plane. The d orbitals for levels n # 3 look like the 3d orbitals but have
larger lobes.
The f orbitals first occur in level n " 4, and as might be expected, they have shapes
1s even more complex than those of the d orbitals. Figure 7.17 shows representations of the
2s 4f orbitals (! " 3) along with their designations. These orbitals are not involved in the
Atomic Structure and Periodicity
(b) 3s bonding in any of the compounds we will consider in this text. Their shapes and labels
are simply included for completeness.
FIGURE 7.13 7.8 talked
So far we have Electron Spinthe
about andshapes
the Pauli Principle
of the 297 orbitals but not about
hydrogen atomic
Two representations of the hydrogen 1s, 2s, their energies. For the hydrogen atom, the energy of a particular orbital is determined by
and
z 3s orbitals. (a) The electron probability
z z
distribution. (b) The surface that contains its value of n. Thus all orbitals with the same value of n have the same energy—they are
90% of the total electron probability (the said to be degenerate. This is shown in Fig. 7.18, where the energies for the orbitals in
size of the orbital, by definition). the first three quantum levels for hydrogen are shown.
– +
y – + y y
+
–

x x x

2px 2py 2pz

(b)
(a)
s. (a) The electron probability distribution for a 2p orbital. (Generated from a program by Robert Allendoerfer on Project
h permission.) (b) Thez boundary surface representations
z z
of all three 2p orbitals. Note that the signs insidez the z
s) of the orbital in that region of space.
y y y y + y
+ –
– + – + –
+ +
–
– +
+ Hydrogen’s single electron
– can occupy any –of
its atomic orbitals. However, in the
– + x the electron resides xin the 1s orbital. If energy +
lowest energy x state, the ground state, x is x
put into the atom, the electron can be transferred to a higher-energy orbital, producing an
excited
dxz state. dyz dxy dx – y 2 2 dz 2
(b)
 Spin quantum number (𝑚𝑠)
• The spectral data indicates that the electron has a magnetic moment with two possible
orientations when the atom is placed in an external magnetic field

• A spinning charge produces a magnetic moment, similarly the electron could have two
spin states, thus producing the two oppositely directed magnetic moments

• Therefore, a new quantum number is adopted to describe this phenomena, called

electron spin quantum number (𝑚𝑠)

• 𝑚𝑠 = +1/2 or -1/2

• It specifies the orientation of the spin axis of an electron

• The significance of electron spin is connected with the postulate of Austrian physicist
Wolfgang Pauli

• In a given atom, no two electrons can have the same set of four quantum numbers (𝑛 , 𝑙 ,
𝑚𝜄 and 𝑚𝑠). This is called the Pauli exclusion principle

• Since electrons in the same orbital have the same values of 𝑛 , 𝑙 , 𝑚𝜄 , this postulate says
that they must have different values of 𝑚𝑠

• Since only two values of 𝑚𝑠 are allowed, an orbital can hold only two electrons, and they
must have opposite spins ( spins must be paired up ⥮)
 Writing electronic configurations
• The distribution of electrons among the orbitals of an
atom is called the electronic configuration

• The electrons are filled in according to a scheme

known as the Aufbau principle (“building-up”)

• Aufbau principle: Electrons are filled in the orbitals in

the order of their increasing energies

• Energy can be evaluated by (𝑛+ 𝑙) rule

• 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d,
6p, 7s, 5f
 Writing electronic configurations

• Aufbau principle

• The diagonal rule

• Electrons fill orbitals in

order of the quantum
number sum (n + l)
 WeWecan 7.11
canuse
usethe The
the Aufbau
quantum
quantum mechanical
mechanical Principle
model
modelof ofthe and
the atom
atomto thetoshow
showPeriodic
how Table
howthetheelectron
electron arrange-
arrange
mentsinin the
ments the hydrogenlike
hydrogenlike atomicatomic orbitals
orbitals of
ofthe
the various
various atoms
atoms account
account forfor
thetheorganiza-
organiza
Writing electronic configurations
We can use the quantum mechanical model of the atom to show how the electron
tion
tion
ments
of the
of the
in
periodic
periodic
the
table. Our
table. Ouratomic
hydrogenlike
main assumption
main orbitals
assumption of
here
thehere is that all
is thatatoms
various
of orbitals as have been described for the hydrogen atom. As protons are added one by
atoms
all atoms have the
havefor
account
same
thethesame
arrang
type
type
organiz
oftion
orbitals
of theasperiodic
have been described
table. Our main forassumption
the hydrogen hereatom.
is thatAsall protons
atoms are
have added
the one ty
same by
one to the nucleus to build up the elements, electrons are similarly added to these hy-
oneof to the nucleus
orbitals as haveto builddescribed
been up the elements, electrons are similarly added to these hy
drogenlike orbitals. This is called the for aufbau the hydrogen
principle.atom. As protons are added one
drogenliketo theorbitals.
oneHydrogen nucleus Thisbuildis called aufbau principle.
the elements,
has onetoelectron, upwhich
the occupies the electrons
1s orbital arein similarly
its groundadded to these
state. The con- h
is German for “building up.”
• Hydrogen has Hydrogen
drogenlike
one
figuration
has one
orbitals.
electron,
for hydrogen
electron,
This
whichis written
which
isoccupies
called
as 1s 1 occupies
the, aufbau
the
which 1s
can
the 1s
principle.
orbital
be
orbital
in
represented
in ground
its its
by
ground
the
state. orbital
state.
following
The con
German for “building up.” figuration for hydrogen is written as 1s 1
, 1s
which canthe becan
represented by the following orbita
1) The diagram:
configuration Hydrogen
for has
hydrogen one electron,
is written which
as occupies
1, which 1s orbital
be in its ground
represented state.
by The co
is German for “building up.” diagram:
figuration for hydrogen is written as 1s 1
, which can be represented by the following orbi
! 2) the following orbital diagram: 1s 2s 2p
2)1)3) diagram: 1s 2s 2p
4) 1
!
! 2) H: 1s
4)3)
5) H: 1s1 1s 2s 2p
! 4) The arrow represents an electron H: 1s 1spinning in a particular direction.
tomic number) The arrow represents
TheHelium,
next element, anhelium,
electron hasspinning
two electrons. in a particular
Since twodirection.
electronswith withopposite
opposite spins
5) • The next element, has two electrons. Since two electrons
mic number)
spins can occupy TheThe
can occupynextorbital,
arrow
an anelement,
represents helium,
orbital,according
according
an electronhastototwo
the electrons.
Pauli
spinning
the exclusionSinceprinciple,
in a exclusion
Pauli particular two direction.
electrons withthe
the electrons
principle, opposite
for heliumspin
omic number) can
are occupy
in the
The 1sanorbital
next orbital, according
with
element, opposite
helium, tospins,
has the
two Pauli exclusion
producing
electrons. a 1s
Since principle,
2
configuration:
two the electrons
electrons with for
2 helium
opposite spi
electrons for helium are in the 1s orbital with opposite spins, 2 producing a 1s
are in the 1s orbital with opposite spins, producing a 1s principle,
configuration:
configuration can occupy an orbital, according to 1s the Pauli 2sexclusion 2p
2
the electrons for heliu
are in the 1s orbital with opposite 2 spins,
1s producing
2s a 1s2p configuration:
He: 1s
He: 1s2 1s 2s 2p
Lithium has three electrons, two 2 of which can go into the 1s orbital before the orbital
is filled. Since the 1s He: is 1s
orbital the
• Lithium has three Lithium has three
electrons, twoelectrons,
of which twoonlycan orbital can
of which go intofor go
the 1,
n !into
1sthe
the third electron
1s orbital
orbital willthe
before
before the occupy
orbita
2 1
isthe lowest-energy
filled. Since the orbital
1s withisnthe
orbital ! 2, or the
only 2s orbital,
orbital for n ! giving
1, thea third
1s 2s electron
configuration:
willthe
occupy
orbital is filled. Since Lithium thehas 1sthree
orbitalelectrons,
is thetwo onlyof which
orbitalcan forgoninto =1,the the 1sthird
orbital
2 1
before
electron orbi
will occupy the is lowest-energy orbital with nis ! the2,n= or the 2s2sorbital, giving a 1s 2s electron
configuration:
2
the filled. Since the
lowest-energy 1sorbital
orbital with 1s 2,
only orbital
or the for2s n! 2p
1, the
orbital, third
giving a 1s will occu
1 2 1n ! 2, or the 2s orbital, giving a 1s22s1 configuration:
2s configuration the lowest-energy orbital with
Li: 1s 2s 1s 2s 2p
Li: 1s22s1 1s 2s 2p
Li: 1s22s1
 107
bers. More traditionalBohrium Bh
names will no doubt be assigned in
ing the new elements has caused
06 in honor
ything of Glenn with
else connected Seaborg
their due108 Hassium
time (hopefully with Hs
a minimum of controversy).
ecause
the an element
discoverer
g person
ever, (Dr.there
because Seaborg
Writing electronic configurations
of an had neveris
element
dieddis-
is some in
109
110
Meitnerium
Darmstadtium
Mt
Ds
Seaborg’s commanding stature 111
Atomic Roentgenium Rg
ers at Berkeley, Darmstadt, and
discovered the various elements, Number Name Symbol
ubmitted. After years of contro- 104 Rutherfordium Rf
The next element,
• and Applied Chem-
nion of Pure 105
beryllium,Dubium
has four electrons,
Db
tled on the names listed in the
which occupy the
106 1s and
The next element, beryllium,
2s orbitals:
Seaborgium
107 has four electrons,
Sg
Bohrium which occupy the
Bh1s and 2s orbitals:
t 106 in honor of Glenn Seaborg 108 Hassium Hs
y because an element had never 109 1s 2s
Meitnerium 2p Mt
iving person (Dr. Seaborg died in Be: 1s110
2 2
2s
Darmstadtium Ds
of Seaborg’s commanding stature 111 Roentgenium Rg

Boron has five electrons, four of which occupy the 1s and 2s orbitals. The fifth elec-
• Boron has five electrons, four of which occupy the
tron goes into the second type of orbital with n ! 2, the 2p orbitals:
1s and 2s orbitals. The1sfifth2selectron 2p goes into the
The next element, beryllium, has four electrons, which occupy the 1s and 2s orbitals:
second type B: of orbital
1s22s 2
2p1 with n = 2, the 2p orbitals.
1s 2s 2p
Since all the
Since all the 2p orbitalsBe:
2p
have
orbitals
2
1s the2 have the same energy
2s same energy (are degenerate), it does not matter which
(are
2pdegenerate), it does not matter which 2p orbital the
orbital the electron occupies.
hasthe
Boron is
Carbon five electrons,
next elementfour andofhas
which occupy theTwo
six electrons. 1s and 2s orbitals.
electrons The the
occupy fifth1selec-
orbital,
electron
tron
two goes into
occupy
occupies:
the the
2s second
orbital,type
and oftwoorbital
occupywith2p
n! 2, the 2p
orbitals. orbitals:
Since there are three 2p orbitals
with the same energy, the mutually repulsive 1s electrons
2s will
2poccupy separate 2p orbitals.
This behavior is summarized by Hund’s rule (named for the German physicist F. H.
B: 1s22s22p1
Hund), which states that the lowest energy configuration for an atom is the one having
theSince
maximum
all the number of have
2p orbitals unpaired electrons
the same energyallowed by the Pauli
(are degenerate), principle
it does in awhich
not matter particu-
lar2pset of degenerate
orbital occupies.By convention, the unpaired electrons are represented as
the electronorbitals.
 Carbon is the next element and has six electrons. Two electrons occupy the 1s orbital,
two occupy the 2s orbital, and two occupy 2p orbitals. Since there are three 2p orbitals
with the same energy, the mutually repulsive electrons will occupy separate 2p orbitals.
Writing electronic configurations
This behavior is summarized by Hund’s rule (named for the German physicist F. H.
Hund), which states that the lowest energy configuration for an atom is the one having
the maximum number of unpaired electrons allowed by the Pauli principle in a particu-
lar set ofisdegenerate
• Carbon orbitals. By
the next element andconvention, the unpairedTwo
has six electrons. electrons are represented
electrons occupy theas
having
1s parallel
orbital, two spins (withthe
occupy spin2s“up”).
orbital, and two occupy 2p orbitals. Since there
2 2 1 1
hells, the The configuration for carbon could be written 1s 2s 2p 2p to indicate that the electrons
lectrons are three 2p orbitals with the same energy, the mutually repulsive 2 electrons
occupy separate 2p orbitals. However, the configuration is usually given as 1s 2s22p2, and it
h parallel will occupy separate 2p orbitals.
is understood that the electrons are in different 2p orbitals. The orbital diagram for carbon is
Pauli
1s 2s 2p
C: 1s22s22p2

Note that the unpaired electrons in the 2p orbitals are shown with parallel spins.
• This behaviour is summarized by Hund’s rule

• It states that “the lowest energy configuration for an atom is the one having
the maximum number of unpaired electrons allowed by the Pauli principle in a
particular set of degenerate orbitals”.

• By convention, the unpaired electrons are represented as having parallel

spins (with spin “up”)
 The configuration for nitrogen, which has seven electrons, is 1s 2s 2p . The three
electrons in the 2p orbitals occupy separate orbitals with parallel spins:
configuration for nitrogen, which has seven electrons, is 1s22s22p3. The three
ThePeriodicity
n Atomic Structure and
1s orbitals
electrons in the 2p orbitals occupy separate 2s with parallel
2p spins:
2 2 3
N: 1s 2s 2p
The configuration for nitrogen, which1s has seven
2s 2p is 1s22s22p3. The three
electrons,
electrons in the 2p orbitals
N: 1soccupy
2 2 3 separate orbitals with parallel spins:
2s 2p which has eight electrons, is 1s22s22p4. One of the 2p
The configuration for oxygen,
orbitals is now occupied by a pair of electrons
1s with opposite
2s 2p spins, as required by the
The configuration for oxygen, which has eight electrons, is 1s22s22p4. One of the 2p
Pauli exclusion principle: 2 2 3
N: 1s
orbitals is now occupied by2sa pair
2p of electrons with opposite spins, as required by the
Pauli exclusion principle: 1s 2s 2p
2 2 4
The configuration for oxygen,
2 2 4which has eight electrons, is 1s 2s 2p . One of the 2p
O: 1s 2s 2p 1s 2s 2p spins, as required by the
orbitals is now occupied by a pair of electrons with opposite
2 2 4
2s 2 2p 6. Pauli The
exclusion
orbital principle:
O: 1s
diagrams and2selectron
2p configurations for fluorine (nine electrons) and neon
(ten electrons) are as follows: 1s 2s for fluorine
2p (nine electrons) and neon
2s 2 2p 6. The orbital diagrams and electron configurations
1s22s22p4
(ten electrons) are asO:follows: 1s 2s 2p
F: Properties
1s22s22p5 of Monatomic
1s
Ions
2s for fluorine
2p (nine electrons) and neon
2
2p 6. The orbital diagrams and electron configurations
22 22 56
he electrons (tenthe
in electrons) are asF:
outermost follows:
Ne:
shell 2s 2pones with the highest value of n) are the most
1s(the energetic,
nd are the onesWith
which are exposed
Ne: to
1s 2 other
2s 2 6 atoms. This shell is2pknown
neon, the orbitals with n !2p1 and n1s! 2 are2snow completely
as the valence shell. The
filled.
nner, core electrons
For(inner
sodium,shell)
theF:firstdo
1s2not
ten 2s 2 usually play
2p5 occupy
electrons thea1s,
role
2s, in
andchemical
2p orbitals,bonding.
and the eleventh
With
electronneon,
musttheoccupy
orbitalsthe withfirst ! 1 andwith
n orbital n !n 2!are3, now
the completely
3s orbital. filled.
The electron configura-
2 2 6
lements with tion For
similar sodium,
properties
for sodium isthe first
1sNe:2s22pten
1s63s
2 generally electrons
2s1 2p have
. To avoid occupy the the
similar
writing 1s, outer
2s, andshell
2p orbitals,
inner-level and theconfigura-
configurations.
electrons, this eleventhFor instance,
we already know Down the group IA
electron
tionthat
With neon,
must
is often
the occupymetals
abbreviated
alkali the asfirst orbital
[Ne]3s
(Group 1 with n ! 3, the 3s orbital. The electron configura-
, where
I) [Ne]
always represents
form the
ions electron
with aconfiguration
+1 charge; of
the “extra” s 1
2 the 6orbitals
2 with
2 6 n 1! 1 and n ! 2 are now completely filled.
tion
neon, for1ssodium
2s 2
2p .is 1s 2s 2p 3s . To avoid writing the inner-level electrons, this configura-
lectron is the one that’s
tionFor
is lost:
sodium,
often the
abbreviated first ten
as electrons
[Ne]3s 1
,hasoccupy
where the represents
[Ne] 1s, 2s, and 22p2electron
the orbitals, and the eleventh
6 2 configuration 2 of
The2 next 2 element,
1 magnesium, the configuration
+ 2 1s 2s 2p 3s , or [Ne]3s . Then
IA Li
electron
neon, 1s 1s
must
2s 2 2s
2p occupy
6
the next six 2elements,. the first orbital
aluminum through
Li
with argon,
n ! 3,have 1s3sconfigurations
the orbital. The electron
obtained configura-
by2 filling
2 62 21 6 1 + 2 2 2 62 6 2
IA tion
the for
Na sodium
1s 2s
Theorbitals
3p next is2p
element,
one 1selectron
2s 2p 3s at .a To
3smagnesium, avoid
time. has writing
the
FigureNa 7.25 the inner-level
1s
configuration 2s1s2p
summarizes electrons,
2sthe
2p this
3s , or [Ne]3s
electron configura-
. Then
configurations
1
e that itIA tion
is stored Kthe is often
next
of the six
1s
first
2abbreviated
18elements,
2s 2
2p
elements 3s 2as [Ne]3s
6 aluminum
by3p 6 1 through
4s
giving the, where
numberK [Ne]
argon,
+
of represents
have1s
electrons 2s 2 the6 electron
2configurations
in2p the 3s
type3p 6 configuration
2 obtained
of orbital by
occupied of
filling
2 2 6
t from the neon,
the
last.3p1s 2s 2p
orbitals .one electron at a time. Figure 7.25 summarizes the electron configurations
that it is stored of The
the next
first 18 element,
elements magnesium,
by giving the has the
number configuration
of electrons 1s
in 2 2
2s
the 2p 6 2
type3s ,
of or [Ne]3s
orbital 2
. Thenis very little
occupied
he next shell down At isthisnow
pointthe it isoutermost
useful to introduceshell, the concept
which of valence
is now fullelectrons,
— meaning the electrons
there
 Representative Noble
Elements d-Transition Elements Representative Elements Gases
1 18
1A Group 8A
ns1 numbers ns2np6

1 2
1 H 2 13 14 15 16 17
He
2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A
1s1 1s2
ns2 ns2np1 ns2np2 ns2np3 ns2np4 ns2np5

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
Period number, highest occupied electron level

2s1 2s2 2s22p1 2s22p2 2s22p3 2s22p4 2s22p5 2s22p6

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
3s1 3s2 3s23p1 3s23p2 3s23p3 3s23p4 3s23p5 3s23p6
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
4s1 4s2 4s23d1 4s23d 2 4s23d 3 4s13d5 4s23d5 4s23d6 4s23d 7 4s23d8 4s13d10 4s23d10 4s24p1 4s24p2 4s24p3 4s24p4 4s24p5 4s24p6

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
5s1 5s2 5s24d1 5s24d 2 5s14d4 5s14d5 5s14d6 5s14d 7 5s14d8 4d10 5s14d10 5s24d10 5s25p1 5s25p2 5s25p3 5s25p4 5s25p5 5s25p6

55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba La* Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
6s1 6s2 6s25d1 4f 146s25d 2 6s25d3 6s25d4 6s25d5 6s25d6 6s25d 7 6s15d 9 6s15d10 6s25d10 6s26p1 6s26p2 6s26p3 6s26p4 6s26p5 6s26p6

87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115
7 Fr Ra Ac** Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub Uut Uuq Uup
7s1 7s2 7s26d1 7s26d 2 7s26d3 7s26d4 7s26d5 7s26d6 7s26d 7 7s26d8 7s16d10 7s26d10 7s26d107p1 7s26d107p2 7s26d107p3

f-Transition Elements

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
*Lanthanides Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
6s24f 15d1 6s 2 4f 3 5d 0 6s24f 45d 0 6s24f 55d 0 6s24f 65d 0 6s24f 75d0 6s24f 75d1 6s24f 95d0 6s24f 105d0 6s24f 115d0 6s24f 125d0 6s24f 135d0 6s24f 145d0 6s24f 145d1

90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

**Actinides Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
7s25f 06d 2 7s25f 26d1 7s25f 36d1 7s25f 46d1 7s25f 66d0 7s25f 76d0 7s25f 76d1 7s25f 96d0 7s25f 106d0 7s25f 116d0 7s25f 126d0 7s25f 136d0 7s25f 146d0 7s25f 146d1

FIGURE 7.28
 Valence electrons
• The electrons in the outermost principal quantum level of an atom are called
valence electrons

• The valence electrons of the nitrogen atom, for example, are the 2s and 2p
electrons

• For the sodium atom, the valence electron is the electron in the 3s orbital, and
so on

• Valence electrons are the most important electrons to chemists because they
are involved in bonding

• The inner electrons are known as core electrons

• The elements in the same group (vertical column of the periodic table) have the
same valence electron configuration

• Mendeleev originally placed the elements in groups based on similarities in

chemical properties

• Elements with the same valence electron configuration show similar chemical
behaviour
 3p
theorbitals
hthe same are fully
valence
same3valence occupied
4electron
electron in ar- show
configuration
configuration show similar
similar chemical
chemical
h3d
the same
Livalence electron
forconfiguration show similar chemical
gon 2is
orbital (recallBe
potassium. that the
Since n!
3p 3 the are
orbitals fully
Transition elements
occupied in ar-
Period number, highest occupied electron level

egon
gon next
of is electron
potassium
7.11
is potassium.
The
potassium.
2s1 to
Aufbau go
is Since 2 into
clearly
Since
2s the
Principle avery
the 3d3p
3p orbital
andsimilar
orbitalsthe are
orbitals (recall
Periodic that
fullyfully
are for
occupied
Table n!
occupied 3ar-the
in305 in ar- 2s
gon is potassium.
However, the Since
chemistry the 3p
of3d orbitals
potassium are fully
is that
clearlyoccupied
for very in ar-
! n3similar
std).
enext
e next
next
electron electron
electron
electron
in to
potassium
to go
go
to chemistry
go
into
into
into a of
aoccupies
3d
a orbital
orbital
3d potassium
the (recall
orbital (recall (recall that
that for
nfor
n!
the3 the
!
3 the
3d).
dium,
clusion However,
indicating
11
confirmed the that 12 by the last
many electron
types ofin is clearly
potassium very similar
occupies the
d).
3d).
the However,
However,
same valence the
thethat chemistry
7.11
chemistry
electron The Aufbau
of of potassium
Principle
potassium
configuration and is
is clearly
show clearly
the Periodic
similar very very
Table similar
similar
chemical 305
mdium,of 3the indicating
3d
Na
is indicating orbitals, Mgthe the
a last
conclusion electron in
confirmed potassium by occupies
many typesthe of A
e ium,
dium, of the indicating
3d orbitals, that
that a the lastelectron
last
conclusion electron
confirmedin in potassium
potassium
by many occupies
occupies
types the the
of
n configuration of 3s potassium is
eon of
of the
the
.nr Elements 3 3d
is potassium.
configuration
Ar 4 orbitals,
3s1 orbitals,
4s
with 1theof Since
2
a
potassium
same a conclusion
conclusion
the 3p
valence 3isorbitals
electron confirmed
confirmed
are fully
4 configuration by
5byoccupied
many many
show 6typesintypes
similarar- 7 of
ofchemical 8 9 10 11 12 3s

nnnext 1s22electron
2s222p663sto
configuration
configuration 2
2
of
3pofgo
6 1
potassium
4spotassium
6 201 into a or
3d isorbital
is 3 Ar 4 4s
(recall
1
1
that for n ! 3 the
:lement
1s 2s 19
2p argon
3s 3pis4spotassium. 21
or Since 22
3 Arthe4 4s3p orbitals 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
d).
: 1s However,
calcium:1s 2
4 22s after
2
2s22p2p 6 the2 chemistry
63s 23p 64s 16 1
or of potassium
3 Ar 1
4 4s 1 Vis clearly arevery
fully similar
occupied in ar-
might
ium,
K
indicating
3s
expect the next 3p Ca4s
thatelectron
the lasttoelectron
Sc
or 3Ar44s
Ti
go into ain3dpotassium orbital (recall Cr
that forthe
occupies nMn ! 3 the Fe Co Ni Cu Zn G
calcium:
ecalcium:
of 3s,
the3p,3dand 1 3d). However,
Ca:
4sorbitals, 3
4s Ar
2
a 4 4s 2the
4s23dchemistry
conclusion 1 4s23dof
confirmed 2 potassium 23d 3
4sby many is 4s
clearly
13d5
types very
of similar
4s23d 5 4s23d6 4s23d 7 4s23d8 4s13d10 4s23d10 4s
calcium: Ca: 3indicating 2
Ar 4 4s that the last electron in potassium occupies the
lithium and sodium,
configuration of potassium 2 is
10
andium,elements begins (scandium
Ca: a 3 Ar
series 4 4softhrough
210
39 elements
zinc)
40 (scandium through zinc)
instead
candium, of37oneCa:
begins ofa the
series 3d
383Ar44s orbitals,
of 10 a
elementsconclusion (scandium confirmed
41
through by many
42
zinc) types of 44
43 45 46 47 48
nts. are
tals, 52obtained
1sThe 2
whose
2s 2p 6 2 by 6
3sconfigurations
electron 3p 4s addingorelectrons
1
configuration ofare 3 Ar Zr
obtained
potassium 4 4stois by adding electrons to
1
candium,
etals, whose Rb
begins a Sr
series
configurations of Y
10
are elements
obtained (scandium
by Nb through
adding Mo zinc)
electrons to Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd I
s
andium,
configuration
etals, whose begins of ascandium
2series
scandium
configurations of2is3p 106 elements
is2are (scandium throughto zinc) 5s14d 7
2s2 22p63s5s 4d14sobtained 4d 2 by 3Ar44s adding
14d4 1 electrons
1
configuration
alcium: 5s1 K: of 1s 5s 5s2or 5s 5s14d5 5s14d6 5s14d8 4d10 5s14d10 5s24d10 5s
1tals, whose configurations
configuration of scandium 2 is 1 are obtained by adding electrons to
next element Sc: Sc:
is calcium:3
3 Ar
Ar 44 4s
4s 2 3d
3d
2 1
configuration 55 Ca: of 3 Ar
scandium
56 4 4s 2 157is 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Sc: 3 Ar 4 4s 3d 2
andium, 6 begins CsSc: a series Ba of Ca:
2 10La * 3Ar44sHf(scandium
1elements Ta through W zinc)Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg T
3Ar44s 3d
als, element,
next whose configurations
scandium,
6s1Ti: 3 Ar
Ar6s2444s 4s 3d6s2are
223d
begins 1obtained
22a5dseries of6s10
4f 14 25dby adding
2elements electrons
6s25d3 (scandium
6s25d4 through to6s25d5zinc)6s25d6 6s25d 7 6s15d 9 6s15d10 6s25d10 6s
transition metals,
onfiguration of scandium
Ti: 3 Arwhose4 4s23d configurations
is2 are obtained by adding Halfelectrons filledto and
completely filled
d orbitals. The
87 configuration
88 2 1of89scandium is
104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 1
2 2
Ti: 3 Ar
Sc:
FrV: 3 Ar
3Ar44s
Ra
4 4s 23d
Ar444s 2 Ac
4s Sc:
3d
3d **
3d33 3Ar44s 7 2 Rf
3d1 Db Sg orbitals
Bh Hsare more
Mt stable
Ds Rg Uub U
2 3
tanium is 7s1 V: 3 7s24 4s 3d7s26d1
Ar 7s26d 2 7s26d23 2 4 7s 26d4 7s26d5 7s26d6 7s26d 7 7s26d8 7s16d10 7s26d10 7s26
xt
xt element. The expected
element. Cr:is expected configuration
2 configuration
4 is [Ar]4s 3d . 4However,
is [Ar]4s 3d . However,
onfiguration [Ar]4s 2 3d 2 . However,
Expected
Ti:V: 3expected
Ar 4 4s 3d
on is 2 4
xt element.
n is The 3Ar44s 2 configuration
3d 3
Ti: 3Ar44s 3d 2 2 is [Ar]4s 3d . However,

on is Cr: 3 4 11 55 f-Transition Elements

5of vanadium Cr:
t element. is
The 3 Ar 4 4s 3d
Ar
expected 4s Observedis [Ar]4s23d 4. However,
3dconfiguration
1 5
Cr: 3 3 Ar
4 4 4s
2 3d 3
n is V:
configuration of Ar 4s
chromium 3d
V: is beyond
3Ar44s 2
3d 3the scope of this book. In
configuration of chromium is beyond the scope of this book. In
is beyondover
isagreeing
configuration
sagreeing theofthe
over scopeexact
chromium
the exact of1cause
this book.
of
is5 beyond
cause thisIn
ofthis anomaly.
the scope 2Note,
anomaly. 4 however,
ofNote,
this book.
4 In
however,
2
 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115
Ra Ac** Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub Uut Uuq Uup
7s2 7s26d1 7s26d 2 7s26d3
Lanthanides & Actinides
7s26d4 7s26d5 7s26d6 7s26d 7 7s26d8 7s16d10 7s26d10 7s26d107p1 7s26d107p2 7s26d107p3

f-Transition Elements

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
*Lanthanides Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
6s24f 15d1 6s 2 4f 3 5d 0 6s24f 45d 0 6s24f 55d 0 6s24f 65d 0 6s24f 75d0 6s24f 75d1 6s24f 95d0 6s24f 105d0 6s24f 115d0 6s24f 125d0 6s24f 135d0 6s24f 145d0 6s24f 145d1

90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

**Actinides Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
7s25f 06d 2 7s25f 26d1 7s25f 36d1 7s25f 46d1 7s25f 66d0 7s25f 76d0 7s25f 76d1 7s25f 96d0 7s25f 106d0 7s25f 116d0 7s25f 126d0 7s25f 136d0 7s25f 146d0 7s25f 146d1

2 1
• After lanthanum, which has the configuration [Xe]6s 5d , a group of 14
ble with atomic symbols, atomic numbers, and partial electron configurations.
elements called the lanthanide series, or the lanthanides, occurs

• This series of elements corresponds to the filling of the seven 4f orbitals.

• Note that sometimes an electron occupies a 5d orbital instead of a 4f orbital.

This occurs because the energies of the 4f and 5d orbitals are very similar
2 1
• After actinium, which has the configuration [Rn]7s 6d , a group of 14 elements
called the actinide series, or the actinides, occurs

• This series corresponds to the filling of the seven 5f orbitals

• Note that sometimes one or two electrons occupy the 6d orbitals instead of the
5f orbitals, because these orbitals have very similar energies