DCMT Lecture Notes Full

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DCMT Lecture Notes Full
Basics Of Electrical & Electronics Engineering (APJ Abdul Kalam Technological

University)
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EET202 DCMT Lecture Notes by TG Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Idukki
EET202 – DC MACHINES & TRANSFORMERS

Module 1 Constructional details of dc machines - armature winding- single layer winding, double layer
winding- lap and wave, equalizer rings, dummy coils, MMF of a winding, EMF developed, electromagnetic
torque - numerical problems.
Module 2 DC generator –principle of operation, EMF equation, excitation, armature reaction–
demagnetising and cross magnetising ampere turn, compensating windings, interpoles, commutation,
OCC, voltage build up and load characteristics, parallel operation. Power flow diagram– numerical
problems
Module 3 DC motor –back emf, generation of torque, torque equation, performance characteristics –
numerical problems. Starting of dc motors- starters –3point and 4 point starters(principle only). Speed
control of dc motors - field control, armature control. Braking of dc motors. Power flow diagram – losses
and efficiency. Testing of dc motors - Swinburne's test, Hopkinson's test, and retardation test. DC motor
applications – numerical problems.
Module 4 Single phase transformers –constructional details, principle of operation, EMF equation, ideal
transformer, dot convention, magnetising current, transformation ratio, phasor diagram, operation on
no load and on load, equivalent circuit, percentage and per unit impedance, voltage regulation.
Transformer losses and efficiency, condition for maximum efficiency, kVA rating. Testing of
transformers– polarity test, open circuit test, short circuit test, Sumpner's test – separation of losses, all
day efficiency. Parallel operation of single-phase transformers– numerical problems
Module 5 Autotransformer – saving of copper –rating of autotransformers. Three phase transformer –
construction- difference between power transformer and distribution transformer –Different connections
of 3-phase transformers. Υ-Υ, Δ-Δ,Υ-Δ, Δ-Υ, V-V. Vector groupings – Yy0, Dd0, Yd1, Yd11, Dy1,
Dy11.Parallel operation of three phase transformers. Three winding transformer – stabilization by tertiary
winding. Tap changing transformers - no load tap changing, on load tap changing, dry type transformers
References:
S.No. Author Title of book Publisher
1 P.S. Bimbhra Electrical Machinery Khanna Publishers
2 D P Kothari & I J Nagrath Electric Machines Tata McGraw Hill
3 K Murugesh Kumar DC Machines & Transformers Vikas Publishing House
4 J.B. Gupta Theory & Performance of Electrical Machines S K Kataria
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Course Contents and Lecture Schedule:

No. of
Sl. No. Topic
Hours
1 Constructional details of dc machines 8
1.1 Parts of dc machines 2
1.2 Armature winding- single layer 1
1.3 Armature winding- double layer-wave and lap - Equalizer rings-Dummy coils 3
1.4 MMF of a winding -EMF developed - Electromagnetic torque 2
2 DC Generator 9
2.1 DC generators- Principle of operation, EMF equation, Methods of excitation –separately 3
and self-excited – shunt, series, compound machines - Numerical Problems
2.2 Armature reaction – effects of armature reaction, demagnetizing & cross magnetizing 3
ampere-turns, compensating windings, interpoles, numerical problems
2.3 Load characteristics, losses and efficiency - power flow diagram - parallel operation – 3
applications of dc generators – numerical problems
3 DC Motor 10
3.1 DC motor– principle of operation, Back emf – classification – torque equation - problem 2
3.2 Starting of dc motors – necessity of starters – numerical problems – types of starters - 3- 2
point and 4-point starters (principle only)
3.3 Speed control – field control, armature control- numerical problems. Braking of dc 2
motors (Description only)
3.4 Losses and efficiency – power flow diagram - numerical problems 1
3.5 Swinburne’s test – numerical problems 1
3.6 Hopkinson’s test, Separation of losses – retardation test – applications of dc motors. 2
4 Single phase Transformer 10
4.1 Transformers – principle of operation, construction, Core type and shell type 1
construction.
4.2 EMF equation – transformation ratio - Ideal transformer – transformer with losses - 2
phasor diagram - no load and on load operation – numerical problems
4.3 Equivalent circuit – percentage and per unit impedance – voltage regulation – numerical 2
problems
4.4 Transformer losses and efficiency - condition for maximum efficiency - all day 2
efficiency – numerical problems.
4.5 Dot convention – polarity test - OC & SC test, Sumpner’s test, separation of losses – 2
numerical problems
4.6 kVA rating of transformer - Parallel operation of single phase Transformers 1
5 Autotransformer & Three phase transformer 8
5.1 Autotransformer- ratings - saving of copper - numerical problems. 2
5.2 3-phase transformer construction – 3-phase transformer connections - power transformer 2
and distribution transformer
5.3 Vector groupings Yy0, Dd0, Yd1, Yd11, Dy1, Dy11 1
5.4 Three winding transformer – tertiary winding - percentage and per unit impedance - 2
parallel operation
5.5 On load and off load tap changers, dry type transformers. 1
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Module 1 Constructional details of dc machines - armature winding- single layer winding, double layer winding-
lap and wave, equalizer rings, dummy coils, MMF of a winding, EMF developed, electromagnetic torque -
numerical problems.
DC MACHINES
DC machines are versatile and extensively used in industry. A wide variety of volt-ampere or toque-speed
characteristics can be obtained from various connections of the field windings. Although a DC machine can operate
as either a generator or a motor, at present its use as a generator is limited because of the widespread use of ac power.
The dc machine is extensively used as a motor in industry. Its speed can be controlled over a wide range with relative
ease. Large DC motors are used in machine tools, printing presses, conveyors, fans, pumps, hoists, cranes, paper
mills, textile mills, rolling mills etc. DC motors still dominate as traction motors used in locomotives.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF DC GENERATOR AND MOTOR

DC GENERATOR DC MOTOR
A simple DC generator or motor consists of a coil of insulated copper wire. The coil is placed between the two
poles of a strong magnet. The two ends of the coil are connected to two halves of a split ring (R1, R2 called
commutator). Two carbon brushes press against the two half–rings lightly. The current is taken out through the
brushes B1 and B2.
Let the coil ABCD be initially in the horizontal position.
DC GENERATOR: When the coil is rotated DC MOTOR: A DC source is connected between
anticlockwise, the arm AB moves downwards and the brushes B1 and B2. Current flows from A to B in arm
arm CD moves upwards. the coil during this motion cuts AB and C to D in arm CD. When current passes through
the magnetic lines of force and an induced current is the coil, a force acts downward in arm AB and upward
produced in the coil. According to Fleming’s right hand in arm CD according to Fleming’s left-hand rule. The
rule, during the downward motion of the arm AB, the coil rotates in clockwise direction. After half revolution,
induced current flows from B to A in the arm AB, and split parts of the ring change brushes. Current becomes
from D to C in the arm CD. The current so produced is reverse in the arms; but the coil continues to rotate in
taken out through the two half–split rings, and the the same direction.
carbon brushes. In a DC generator, commutator and brushes convert AC
After half the revolution, the arms of the coil voltage in coil to DC voltage across brushes.
interchange their positions; the induced current flows In DC motor, DC supply voltage is converted to AC
from C to D in the arm CD, and from A to B in the arm voltage in coil so that unidirectional torque is produced.
AB.
The two half–split rings (R1 and R2) rotate with the coil
and touch the two carbon brushes (B1, B2) one by one.
As a result, each carbon brush continues to have the
same polarity. The brush B2 always remains positive (+)
terminal and the brush B1 remains negative (–) terminal.
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CONSTRUCTION OF DC MACHINES
In a DC machine, the armature winding is placed on the rotor and the field windings are placed on the stator. The
stator has salient poles that are excited by one or more field windings, called shunt filed windings and series field
windings. The field windings produce an air gap flux distribution that is symmetrical about the pole axis or direct
axis.
The voltage induced in the turns of the armature winding is alternating. A commutator-brush combination is used as
a mechanical rectifier to make the armature terminal voltage unidirectional.
A DC machine with four poles is shown in figure. It consists of mainly 4 parts i) Field ii) Armature iii) Commutator
and iv) brushes.
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FIELD SYSTEM
The object of the field system is to create a uniform magnetic field, within which the armature rotates. Field system
consists of four parts i) yoke ii) pole cores iii) pole shoes and iv) field coils.
YOKE: Cylindrical yoke acts as a frame of the machine. Yoke serves two purposes, i) it provides mechanical support
for the entire machine and acts as a protecting cover ii) it forms a portion of the magnetic circuit and supports the
poles. In small machine, yoke is made of cast iron. In large machines, it is made of fabricated steel.
POLE CORE: Field windings are wound on pole core and supported by pole shoes. It consists of number of sheet
steels stacked and riveted together. It is made of silicon steel to reduce hysteresis loss and is laminated to minimize
eddy currents. Pole cores are then bolted to yoke.
Pole shoes serve two functions i) it supports the field coils and ii) it spreads out flux in the airgap
FIELD COILS: Field coils are made of copper wire and it produces the flux. It is former-wound for the required
dimension and is put into place around the pole core. Field coils can be classified into i) shunt field coils and ii) series
field coils. The total ampere turns required for a DC machine can be produced by shunt field coil alone or series field
coil alone or by both of them. 4 field coils in a 4-pole machine are interconnected and is called field winding. A DC
current, if supplied through the field winding causes the magnetic flux to set up in the main poles.
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INTERPOLES: It is fitted to yoke between main poles. Its windings are made of copper and are connected in series
with armature windings. Flux produced by inter poles provides spark less commutation.
SHAFT: It provides mechanical strength to armature and commutator. Rotor assembly is free to rotate by two bearing
fixed between shaft and two end covers. Transfers mechanical energy to and from machine.
ARMATURE
ARMATURE CORE & WINDINGS: It is cylindrical and mounted on shaft. It is made of number of laminated
sheet steels stacked and rivetted together. It has slots on outer periphery to accommodate the armature windings.
Armature windings may be single layer or double layer and lap or wave.
COMMUTATOR: Ends of armature coils terminates at commutator segments. It is made of hard-drawn copper
segments insulated by mica. Functions of commutator are i) it collects current from armature conductors ii) the e.m.f.
generated in the armature conductors is alternating. The commutator helps in converting this alternating e.m.f. into a
direct one.
BRUSHES: The purpose of brushes is to ensure electrical connection between the rotating commutator and stationary
external load circuit. It is made of graphite or carbon and is held by brush holders. Desirable properties for brushes
are i) good electrical conductivity and ii) less co-efficient of friction. The brushes collect the armature current from
the commutator segments and supply it to the load (in the case of generator) or feed the current into the commutator
segments (in the case of motor).
ARMATURE WINDINGS
The field windings are simple arrangements with concentrated coils. But the armature windings comprise a set of
oils embedded in the slots uniformly spaced round the armature periphery. The emfs are induced in armature coils
due to relative motion between them and the flux wave in the air gap established by the field windings.
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Pole pitch and coil span: Distance between the centres of two adjacent poles is called pole pitch and the distance
between the two sides of a coil is called coil span. Both pole pitch and coil span are expressed in terms of number of
slots or number of coil sides.
No. of slots
Pole pitch=
No. of poles
Full-pitched coil and short pitched coil: If the coil span is equal to the pole pitch, the coil is full pitched. If the coil
span is less than pole pitch it is short pitched coil.
A coil consists of two coils sides which are placed in two different slots which are almost a pole pitch apart. When
the two coil sides forming a coil are spaced exactly one pole pitch apart, they are said to be of full pitch. If the coil
span is less than a pole pitch, the coil is said to be short pitched.
Single layer winding: Each slot consists of only one coil side (armature conductor). In single layer winding, no. of
coils = no. of slots / 2. Single layer windings are not used for machines having commutators ie. not used for DC
machines.
Double layer winding: Each slot consists of two coil sides (armature conductors) – one coil side in top half of one
slot and the other coil side in bottom half of another slot exactly or approximately one pole pitch apart. In double
layer winding, no. of coils = no. of slots
Modern DC machines employ two general type of windings: a) Lap windings b) Wave windings. These 2 types of
windings differ from each other in two ways: i) the number of circuits between positive and the negative brushes,
and ii) the manner in which the coil ends are connected to the commutator segments.
In a lap winding, the finishing end of one coil is connected to the starting end of the adjacent coil. In wave winding,
the finishing end of one coil under one pole-pair is connected to the starting end of the coil under the next pole-pair.
The most commonly used windings are simplex lap and wave windings.
Simplex Lap: The starting and finishing ends of a coil are connected to adjacent commutator segments.
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No. of parallel paths = No. of poles
Back pitch Yb : The distance between top and bottom coil sides of the coil, measured around the back of the armature
is called the back pitch. It is measured in terms of coil-sides. Back pitch should always be an odd number.
2C
Yb   K (Yb should be an odd integer) where C is the number of coils and P is the number of poles.
P
Remember: Commutator end is front end.
Winding pitch Y is distance between starting ends of two consecutive coils; Y   2 for simplex lap winding and
2C  2
Y for simplex wave winding. Y should be an even integer.
( P / 2)
+ sign for progressive winding & - sign for retrogressive winding (progressive winding – winding progresses in the
direction in which it is wound – progressive winding is preferred)
Front pitch Yf is the distance between two coil sides which are connected to the same commutator segment;
Y f  Yb  Y for lap winding and Y f  Y  Yb for wave winding (Yf should be an odd integer)
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Commutator pitch: The distance between the two commutator segments to which the two ends (starting and finishing
ends) of a coil are connected is called commutator pitch.
Comparison of simplex lap & wave windings:
C = No. of coils in the armature
P = No. of poles
K = a number (integer or fraction) to make Yb an odd integer
SIMPLEX LAP SIMPLEX WAVE

Back Pitch 2C 2C
Yb   K = Odd integer Yb   K = Odd integer
P P
Winding Pitch (+ sign for Y  2 2C  2
Y = even integer (if not even
progressive winding & - sign ( P / 2)
for retrogressive winding)
integer, use dummy coil)
Front Pitch Y f  Yb  Y Y f  Y  Yb
Commutator pitch Yc   1 C 1
Yc 
( P / 2)
Equalizer rings May be needed Not needed
No. of parallel paths P 2
No. of brushes P 2 (may be equal to P for smooth collection
of current for large machines)
Dummy coils Not needed May be required
Conductor current Ic Ia/P Ia/2
Applications Low-voltage high-current High-voltage low-current machines
machines
For double layer winding, No. of coils = No. of slots = No. of commutator segments
Draw the winding diagram in developed form for a simplex lap wound, double layer, 12-slot, 4-pole, dc
armature with 12 commutator segments. Also, draw the sequence diagram (ring diagram) to show the position of
brushes.
S=12; P=4; C=12 (No. of coils = No. of commutator segments)

For progressive simplex lap winding, Y  2
2C 2 12
Yb  K   K  6  K ; Yb may be 5 or 7 (Select Yb=7 since short pitched coils are not preferred)
P 4
Y f  Yb  Y  7  2  5
Slot Back Front Slot Back Pitch Front Pitch Slot Back Pitch Front Pitch
No. Pitch Pitch No. Yb=7 Yf=5 No. Yb=7 Yf=5
Yb=7 Yf=5
1 1+7=8 8-5=3 5 9+7=16 16-5=11 9 17+7=24 24-5=19
2 3+7=10 10-5=5 6 11+7=18 18-5=13 10 19+7=26=2 26-5=21
3 5+7=12 12-5=7 7 13+7=20 20-5=15 11 21+7=28=4 28-5=23
4 7+7=14 14-5=9 8 15+7=22 22-5=17 12 23+7=30=6 6-5=1
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Top layer coil sides are represented by solid lines and odd numbers are assigned. Bottom layer coil sides are
represented by dotted lines and even numbers are assigned. (While drawing, width between adjacent solid lines =
1cm and width between adjacent solid and dotted lines = 0.4cm)
Coil sides 1 to 6 under North pole; Coil sides 7 to 12 under South; Coil sides 13 to 18 under North; Coil sides 19 to
14 under South pole (Direction of current under north pole is assumed upward arbitrarily)
In the ring diagram, adjacent coil sides 12 & 7 carry current in same direction (downward). Front end connection of
these coils shall be the position of a positive brush arm. Adjacent coil sides 18 & 13 carry current in same direction
(upward). Hence, front end connection of these coils shall be the position of a negative brush arm (For dc generator,
the current leaving terminal is positive). Similarly, second positive brush arm at the front end connection of coil sides
24 & 19 and second negative brush arm at the front end connection of coil sides 6 & 1.
EQUALIZER RINGS
A simplex lap winding has as many parallel paths as poles and each parallel path is made of coil sides which lie under
two adjacent poles. If the flux under all poles is equal, the emf induced in all parallel paths will be equal. But in
practice, it is possible that the emf induced in various parallel paths may not be equal owing to the following reasons:
i) There may be difference in the values of reluctances of corresponding iron parts of the magnetic circuit
ii) Length of airgap may not be the same under all poles owing to defects in machining or in assembling
iii) The poles may have different strengths owing to error in putting field windings
The unequal values of emfs generated in different parallel paths may produce large circulating currents as the
armature resistance is small. This may cause inequality of brush arm currents. It increases I2R losses in the winding
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on no load and introduce commutation difficulties causing overheating and sparking. The overloading of brushes due
to circulating can be eliminated by providing equalizer rings along with the armature winding.
The equalizer rings are low resistance copper conductors which connect those points in the winding which under
ideal conditions have no difference of potential between them. If there are differences of potential between such
points, equalization of potential will result from the flow of current through these low resistance conductors which
bypass the current. The two points which are to be connected together must be two pole pitches apart.
There are no circulating currents in a simplex wave winding even if the magnetic circuits under different poles are
not uniform. In wave winding, the coils sides forming a parallel path are distributed over all the poles and hence all
the parallel paths are affected equally by the asymmetry in the magnetic circuit. Hence, there is no necessity of
providing equalizer connections for a simple wave winding.
Total number of tappings = number of rings x pairs of poles
Draw the winding diagram in developed form for a simplex lap wound 12-slot, 4-pole, dc armature with 12
commutator segments and 3 equalizing rings. Also, draw the sequence diagram (ring diagram) to show the
position of brushes.
Note : Each ring is connected to P/2 coils.
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Draw the winding diagram for a simplex lap wound, double layer, 24-slot, 4-pole, dc armature with 24 commutator
segments. Also, Indicate the position of brushes. Use 4 equalizer rings.

For progressive simplex lap winding, Y  2
2C 2  24
Yb  K   K  12  K ; Yb may be 13
P 4
Y f  Yb  Y  13  2  11
Slot Back Front Slot Back Pitch Front Pitch Slot Back Pitch Front Pitch
No. Pitch Pitch No. Yb=13 Yf=11 No. Yb=13 Yf=11
Yb=13 Yf=11
1 1+13=14 14-11=3 9 17+13=30 30-11=19 17 33+13=46 46-11=35
2 3+13=16 16-11=5 10 19+13=32 32-11=21 18 35+13=48 48-11=37
3 5+13=18 18-11=7 11 21+13=34 34-11=23 19 37+13=50=2 50-11=39
4 7+13=20 20-11=9 12 23+13=36 36-11=25 20 39+13=52=4 52-11=41
5 9+13=22 22-11=11 13 25+13=38 38-11=27 21 41+13=54=6 54-11=43
6 11+13=24 24-11=13 14 27+13=40 40-11=29 22 43+13=56=8 56-11=45
7 13+13=26 26-11=15 15 29+13=42 42-11=31 23 45+13=58=10 58-11=47
8 15+13=28 28-11=17 16 31+13=44 44-11=33 24 47+13=60=12 12-11=1
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Draw the winding diagram in developed form for a simplex wave wound 16-slot, 6-pole, dc armature with 2 coil-
sides per slot. Also, draw the sequence diagram (ring diagram) to show the position of brushes.

2C  2 2  16  2
For simplex wave winding, Y    10
( P / 2) 3
2C 2 16
Yb  K   K  5.3  K ; Select Yb=5
P 6
Y f  Yb  Y  10  5  5
Slot Back Pitch Front Slot Back Pitch Front Pitch Slot Back Front Pitch
No. Yb=5 Pitch No. Yb=7 Yf=5 No. Pitch Yf=5
Yf=5 Yb=7
1 1+5=6 6+5=11 7 29+5=34=2 2+5=7 13 25+5=30 30+5=35=3
2 11+5=16 16+5=21 8 7+5=12 12+5=17 14 3+5=8 8+5=13
3 21+5=26 26+5=31 9 17+5=22 22+5=27 15 13+5=18 18+5=23
4 31+5=36=4 4+5=9 10 27+5=32 32+5=37=5 16 23+5=28 28+5=33=1
5 9+5=14 14+5=19 11 5+5=10 10+5=15
6 19+5=24 24+5=29 12 15+5=20 20+5=25
Note : Simplex wave winding has only 2 parallel paths. Hence, two brush arms are sufficient. For better current
collection without sparking, no. of brush arms shall be equal to no. of poles.
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DUMMY COILS
2C  2
Sometimes with a certain number of coils, it is not possible to satisfy equation, Y  to be an even integer for
( P / 2)
a wave winding. This may happen when a standard available laminations are to be used. Still the armature winding
can be carried out making use of lesser number of coils. Some slots are kept without armature winding and dummy
coils are employed in that slots. Dummy coils are similar to other coils except their ends are cut short and taped.
They do not connect with the commutator segments. Dummy coils are simply to provide mechanical balance for the
armature. As they do not connect to the commutator segments, they do not affect the electrical characteristics of the
winding.
Draw the winding diagram in developed form for a simplex wave wound 22-slot, 4-pole, dc armature with 2 coil-
sides per slot. Clearly show the dummy coil. Also, draw the sequence diagram (ring diagram) to show the position
of brushes.
S=16; P=6; C=16 (No. of coils = No. of commutator segments=No. of slots)

2C  2 2  22  2
For simplex wave winding, Y    23 (Y should be an even integer; make one coil as dummy)
( P / 2) 2
2C  2 2  21  2
Y   22
( P / 2) 2
2C 2  22
Yb  K   K  11  K ; Select Yb=11
P 4
Y f  Yb  Y  2 2  11  11
Assume that 21 & 21+11=32 are the coils sides of dummy coil. Selection of dummy coil is arbitrary. (With some
available standard armature with certain no. of slots, Y will not be an even integer. All the slots are filled with same
no. of coils, but one or two coils are not connected to the commutator; it remains electrically isolated. Dummy coils
are required only for mechanical balancing)
MULTIPLEX WINDINGS
In some cases, the number of parallel paths may not be adequate enough from design consideration. For example,
in a 10-pole commutator machine, simplex wave winding gives only 2 parallel paths whereas simplex lap winding
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results in 10 parallel paths. In case, the parallel paths required are in between 2 and 10 (for wave winding) or more
than 10 (for lap winding), then multiplex windings are employed.
In duplex lap winding, the distance between the segments to which the two ends of one coil are connected is 2 i.e.
Yc = ±2.
For example, if one end of coil 1 is joined with segment 1, then for progressive duplex lap winding its other coil-
end is connected to segment 3, leaving segment number 2 in between them. The coil starting from segment 3 has its
second coil end connected to segment 5 and so on.
In duplex wave winding, the last coil-end after travelling once around the commutator, is connected to two
C2
segments behind or ahead of the starting point. Then, Yc  .
( P / 2)
The number of parallel paths A in lap winding is A = mP and in wave winding A = 2m where m is the multiplicity
(2,3 ….).
Multiplex wave windings are rarely used in DC machines.
ARMATURE MMF & FLUX DISTRIBUTION DUE TO ARMATURE CONDUCTORS ALONE

CARRYING CURRENTS
The armature has a distributed winding, as against the field coils which are concentrated and concentric. The mmf of
each coil is shifted in space by the number of slots. For a full pitched coil, each coil produces a rectangular mmf
distribution. The sum of the mmfs due to all coils would result in a stepped triangular wave form. If we neglect
slotting and have uniformly spaced coils on the surface, then the mmf distribution due to the armature working alone
would be a triangular distribution in space since all the conductors carry equal currents.
Armature mmf
armature N S
conductor
GNA
Armature flux
Flux due to main poles alone (when armature conductors do not carry any current) is shown in figure below.
GNA
N S
Field flux
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EMF INDUCED IN ARMATURE

Flux linkage  with full-pitched T-turn armature coil at any time t is given by
  T cosrt
Then,, emf induced in T-turn armature coil is given by
d
e  T r sin r t ; flux is assumed to be time-invariant.
dt
EMF induced in the coil is alternating but the voltage available across the brushes is unidirectional.

1
Average value of induced emf, E 
  T 
0
r sin  r td ( r t )
1 1 2
T r    cos r t 0  T r  1  cos   

 T r
  
Here, r is the armature speed in electrical radians/second.
PN
r  2 f r  2  where N = armature speed in rpm.
120
2 PN PN
E  T   2   4T  
 120 120
Z
If Z is the total number of conductors in one coil of T-turns, then T 
2
PN
E  Z 
60
PN
Average emf per conductor, Ez   
60
PN Z  ZN P
Average emf per parallel path, Ea       .
60 A 60 A
DEVELOPED TORQUE
Let P = No. of main poles
Z = total number of armature conductors
A = No. of parallel paths
Ia = armature current
Ia
Ic = current through each armature conductor =
A
D = diameter of the armature core in m
L = length of the armature core in m
Bav = average flux density in the air gap
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A current carrying conductor experiences a force when it is place in a uniform magnetic field.
Force developed in each conductor is given by
Fc  Bav Ic L
 D 
But Bav  and pole-pitch   (Note:- Bav  )
L P Area under one pole
Hence, Bav   P
 DL
 P Ia P
Fc   L    Ia
 DL A  DA
Force developed by all Z conductors,
PZ
F  Ia
 DA
PZ D PZ
Torque developed, Td  F  r    Ia     I a N-m
 DA 2 2 A
Power developed Pd  rTd  Ea Ia
The armature of a 4-pole lap-wound DC machine has core length = 30cm, diameter = 40cm, total conductors =
500, speed = 1200rpm and current = 20A. For an average flux density of 0.5T, find the electromagnetic power
developed and the internal torque.
P
Bav 
 DL
 DLBav   0.4  0.3  0.5
   0.04712Wb
P 4
 ZN P 0.04712  500 1200 4
Ea      471.2V
60 A 60 4
Mechanical power developed, Pd  Ea Ia  471.2 20  9424W
Ea I a Ea I a 9424
Torque developed, Td    60   60  75 Nm
r 2 N 2 1200
A 6-pole DC machine has 300 conductors and each conductor is capable of carrying 80A without excessive
temperature rise. The flux per pole is 0.015Wb and the machine is driven at 1800rpm. Compute the total current,
emf, power developed in the armature and electromagnetic torque if the armature conductors are a) wave connected
and b) lap connected.
P = 6; Z = 300,  = 0.015Wb, N = 1800rpm, Ic = 80A

a) Wave connected (A = 2)
 ZN P 0.015  300  1800 6
Ea      405V
60 A 60 2
Ia = 2 x 80 = 160A
Power developed = 405 x 160 = 64800W
Ea Ia Ea I a 64800
Electromagnetic torque, Td    60   60  343.5 Nm
r 2 N 2 1800
b) Lap connected (A = 6)
 ZN P 0.015  300 1800 6
Ea      135V
60 A 60 6
Ia = 6 x 80 = 480A
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Ea Ia Ea I a 64800
Electromagnetic torque, Td    60   60  343.5 Nm
r 2 N 2 1800
A 6-pole, 12kW, 240V DC machine is wave connected. If this machine is now lap-connected, all other things
remaining the same, calculate its voltage, current and power ratings.
 ZN P  ZN 6
For wave connected, Ea      240V
60 A 60 2
12000
Ia   50 A
240
50
Ic   25 A
2
 ZN
For lap connected, Ea   80V
60
I c  25 A
I a  6  25  150 A
The armature of a 4-pole DC motor has lap connected winding accommodated in 60 slots, each containing 20
conductors. If the useful flux per pole is 25mWb, calculate the torque developed when the armature current is 60A.
P = 4; Z = 60 x 20 = 1200,  = 0.025Wb, Ia = 60A

PZ 4  1200
Torque developed, Td   Ia   0.025  60  286.48 Nm N-m
2 A 2  4
A 6-pole lap-wound DC machine has 240 coils of 2 turns each. The armature is 50cm long and 40cm diameter.
Air-gap flux density of 0.6T is uniform over pole shoe. Each pole subtends an angle of 40˚ mechanical. For
armature speed of 1200rpm, find the induced emf.

Bav 
Area under one pole-shoe
Pole Arc = 40˚mech = 120˚ele
 DL Pole Arc   0.4  0.5 120
Pole-shoe area      0.0698
P Pole Pitch 6 180
  Bav  Area under one pole-shoe=0.6  0.0698=0.04187Wb
Total armature turns = 2 x 240 = 480
Total armature conductors Z = 480 x 2 = 960
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 ZN P 0.04187  960 1200 6

Ea      803.8V
60 A 60 6
SHAPE OF DC OUTPUT VOLTAGE

The waveform of the rectified voltage induced in a single armature coil of a DC machine is shown below.
If two armature coils are used, the resultant rectified voltage across the brushes is obtained by adding two individual
rectified voltage waves and waveform is shown below.
As the number of series armature coils between the brushes is increased, the ripple content in output voltage gets
drastically reduced.
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EET202 - DC MACHINES & TRANSFORMERS

COURSE OUTCOMES
CO1 Illustrate the constructional details of DC machines
CO2 Analyse the performance of DC generators at various load conditions
CO3 Analyse the performance of DC motors at various load conditions
CO4 Determine the performance parameters of DC machines through various tests
CO5 Analyse the performance of 1-phase transformers at various load conditions
CO6 Describe the principle of operation and various connections of 3-phase transformers and auto-
transformers
GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE, IDUKKI

ASSIGNMENT No. 1 MODULE 1
Date of ONLINE submission: 30-05-2021 before 5 pm
Question CO Mark
1. Draw the winding diagram in developed form for a simplex lap wound 14-slot, 4-pole, dc 1 3
armature with 14 commutator segments and 3 equalizer rings. Also, draw the sequence
diagram (ring diagram) to show the position of brushes.
2. Draw the winding diagram in developed form for a simplex wave wound 14-slot, 6-pole, 1 3
dc armature with 2 coil-sides per slot. Also, draw the sequence diagram (ring diagram) to
show the position of brushes.
3. For problem (1) and (2), determine the generated emf if flux per pole is 1Wb and rotational 2 1
speed is 600RPM.
4. Calculate the torque developed when a current of 15A passes through the armature of a 4- 2 1½
pole lap wound DC motor with the following particulars: No. of armature conductors =
560; pole shoe 15cm long subtending an angle of 60˚; radius of armature core = 14cm,
flux density in the air gap is 1.78T.
Ans:- 52.33Nm
5. A 4-pole machine is wound with 564 conductors. The flux and speed are such that the 2 1½
average emf generated in each conductor is 2V. The current in each conductor is 100A.
Find the total current and the emf generated in the armature if the winding is i) lap
connected and ii) wave connected.
(Ans:- Lap 282V, 400A Wave 564V,200A)
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Module 2 DC generator –principle of operation, EMF equation, excitation, armature reaction– demagnetising
and cross magnetising ampere turn, compensating windings, interpoles, commutation, OCC, voltage build up
and load characteristics, parallel operation. Power flow diagram– numerical problems
EMF EQUATION
Let P = number of main poles
Z = total number of armature conductors or coil-sides
N = rotational speed of armature in revolutions per minute
 = flux per pole in webers
During one revolution of armature in a P-pole generator each armature conductor cuts the magnetic flux P times.
Flux cut by one conductor in one revolution = P webers
No. of revolutions per second = N/60
Time for one revolution = 60/N
Average emf induced in one conductor =
flux P  PN
 
time (60 / N ) 60
Emf generated = average emf / conductor x No. of conductors in each parallel path =  PN  Z
60 A
 ZN P
Emf generated, Eg  
60 A
For a particular DC generator, Z, P and A are constants. Hence, Eg   N
The induced emf in a DC machine when running at 500rpm is 180V. Calculate the induced emf while the machine
is running at 600rpm by assuming flux to be constant.
E  N
E2 N 2

E1 N1
N2 600
E2  E1   180   216V
N1 500
At what speed should a wave wound 6-pole DC machine having 480 conductors and a flux of 60mWb per pole be
run to generate 320V on open circuit?
Eg  60  A 320  60  2
N   222rpm
 ZP 0.06  480  6
A 4-pole lap wound DC armature has a bore diameter of 0.7m. If it has 560 conductors and the ratio of pole arc /
pole pitch is 0.63. If the armature is running at 600rpm and the flux density in the air gap is 1.2Wb/m 2. Determine
the induced emf in the armature if effective length of armature conductor is 20cm.
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
Bav 
Area under one pole-shoe
 DL Pole Arc   0.7  0.2
Pole-shoe area     0.63  0.0693
P Pole Pitch 4
  Bav  Area under one pole-shoe=1.2  0.0693=0.08316Wb
Total armature turns = 560
 ZN P 0.08316  560  600 4
Eg      465.7V
60 A 60 4
METHODS OF EXCITATION
Generators are usually classified according to the way in which their fields are excited.
Generators may be divided into (a) separately-excited generators and (b) self-excited generators.
a) Separately-excited generators are those whose field magnets are energized from an independent external
DC source of DC current.
b) Self-excited generators are those whose field magnets are energized by the current produced by the
generators themselves
There are three types of self-excited generators named according to the manner in which their field coils (or windings)
are connected to the armature.
(i) Shunt wound: The field windings are connected across or in parallel with the armature conductors and
have the full voltage of the generator applied across them.
(ii) Series Wound: The field windings are joined in series with the armature conductors. As they carry full
load current, they consist of relatively few turns of thick wire or strips. Such generators are rarely used
except for special purposes i.e. as boosters etc.
(iii) Compound Wound: It is a combination of a few series and a few shunt windings and can be either short-
shunt or long-shunt. In a compound generator, the shunt field is stronger than the series field. When
series field aids the shunt field, generator is said to be cumulatively-compounded. On the other hand, if
series field opposes the shunt field, the generator is said to be differentially compounded.
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SEPARATELY EXCITED DC GENERATOR

A DC generator whose filed winding is excited from an independent DC source (such as battery or a generator) is
called separately excited generator.
Let Ia = armature current
If = field current
IL = load current
Eg = generated emf
Ra = armature resistance (it includes resistance of armature winding and brush contact resistance)
V = load voltage
Ia  I L
V  Eg  I a Ra
Power developed, Pg  Eg I a
Power delivered to load, PL  VI L
SELF EXCITED DC GENERATOR

A DC generator whose field winding is excited by the current supplied by the generator itself is called a self excited
generator.
In such machines, the field coils are interconnected with the armature winding. If the field windings are connected
in parallel with the armature winding its is shunt generator. If the field windings are connected in series with the
armature winding its called series generator. If the field windings are connected partly in series and partly in parallel
with the armature windings, it is compound generator.
Self-excitation is possible only if there is some residual magnetism is present in the poles.
SHUNT GENERATORS
In shunt generator, the field winding is connected across the armature circuit.
Let Rsh = resistance of the shunt field winding
I a  I L  I sh
V
I sh 
Rsh
V  Eg  I a Ra
Voltage build-up in shunt generator: When the armature is rotated, a small voltage is inducted in the armature winding
due to residual flux present in the field core. This induced emf causes a small current to flow in the field coils and
produces a flux. This flux adds to the residual flux and resultant flux in the air gap is increased. Hence, the generated
voltage is increased up to a value decided by the speed and resistance in the field circuit.
SERIES GENERATORS
In series generator, the field winding is connected in series with the armature circuit. Since the series field winding
carries the full load current, it is designed with a fewer turns of thick wire or strips.
Let Rse = resistance of the series field winding
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I a  I L  I se
V  Eg  I a ( Ra  Rse )
COMPOUND GENERATORS
In compound generators, there are two field windings – one having many turns of fine wire connected across the
armature and the other having a few turns of thick wire connected in series with the armature. Compound generators
may by short-shunt (shunt field winding connected in parallel with armature alone) or long-shunt (shunt field
winding connected across the series combination of armature and series field winding). Compound generators can
again be classified into cumulative compound and differential compound. In cumulative compound generator,
series field assists the shunt field whereas in differential compound generator, series field opposes the shunt field.
Short-shunt compound generator Long-shunt compound generator
I a  I L  I sh I a  I L  I sh
V  I L Rse Eg  I a Ra V
I sh   I sh 
Rsh Rsh Rsh
V  Eg  I a Ra  I L Rse V  Eg  I a ( Ra  Rse )
Power developed, Pg  Eg I a Power developed, Pg  Eg I a
Power delivered to load, PL  VI L Power delivered to load, PL  VI L
A 20kW, 200V shunt generator has an armature resistance of 0.05Ω and a shunt field resistance of 200Ω. Calculate
the power developed in the armature when it delivers rated output.
V = 200V
PL  VI L  20000
20000
IL   100 A
200
V 200
I sh    1A
Rsh 200
I a  I L  I sh  100  1  101A
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Eg  V  I a Ra  200  101 0.05  205.05V

Power developed, Pg  Eg I a  205.05 101  20.71kW
A separately excited DC generator running at 1000rpm supplied 110A at 220V to a resistive load. If the load
resistance remains constant, what will be the load current if the speed is reduced to 800rpm? Armature resistance
is 0.02Ω. Field current is unaltered.
Equivalent circuit
V = 220V IL = 110A
220
Load resistance, RL   2
110
With speed is 1000rpm,
Eg1  V1  I L1Ra  220  110  0.02  222.2V
Let Eg2 be generated emf at 800rpm. Since flux remains constant,
Eg 2 N2

Eg1 N1
N2 800
Eg 2  Eg1   222.2   177.76V
N1 1000
Eg 2  I L 2 ( Ra  RL )
Eg 2 177.76
I L2    88 A
Ra  RL 2.02
A 25kW, 500V, DC series generator has armature and series field resistance of 0.05Ω and 0.03Ω respectively.
Calculate the generated emf and the armature current at full load.
V = 500V
PL  VI L  25000
25000
IL   50 A
500
I a  I L  50 A
Eg  V  I a ( Ra  Rse )  500  50  (0.05  0.03)  504V
A 250V compound generator has armature, series-field and shunt-field resistances of 0.4Ω and 0.2Ω and 125Ω
respectively. If this generator supplies 10kW at rated voltage, find the emf generated in the armature when the
machine is connected a) long shunt and b) short-shunt. Allow 1V per brush for contact drop.
V = 250V
PL  VI L  10000
10000
IL   40 A
250
a) Long-shunt
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V 250
I sh    2A
Rsh 125
I a  I L  I sh  40  2  42 A
Brush drop B.D. = 2 x 1 = 2V
Eg  V  I a ( Ra  Rse )  B.D.  250  42  (0.4  0.2)  2  277.2V
b) Short-shunt
V  I L Rse 250  40  0.2
I sh    2.064 A
Rsh 125
I a  I L  I sh  40  2.064  42.064 A
Eg  V  I a Ra  I L Rse  B.D.  250  42.064  0.4  40  0.2  2  276.8256V
A 4-pole, lap wound, long shunt, DC compound generator has useful flux per pole of 0.07Wb. The armature
consists of 220 turns and resistance per turn is 0.004Ω. Calculate the terminal voltage if the resistance of shunt
and series fields are 100Ω and 0.02Ω respectively; when the generator is running at 900rpm with armature current
of 50A. Also calculate the power output in kW for the generator.
Ans:- V = 458.25V; Po = 20.814kW
Note: Armature resistance per parallel path = 220*0.004/4 = 0.22Ω
Effective armature resistance Ra = 0.22/4 = 0.055Ω
A 4-pole lap-connected shunt generator has 300armature conductors and flux per pole of 0.1Wb. It runs at
1000rpm. The armature and field resistances are 0.2Ω and 125Ω respectively. Calculate the terminal voltage when
it is supplying 90A to load. Ignore armature reaction.
Ans:- V = 181.23V
ARMATURE REACTION
The effect of the armature flux on main flux distribution in air gap is called armature reaction.
When the DC generator is on no-load, armature current is zero and hence armature flux is zero. Only main flux is
present (shown by red lines). When DC generator is loaded, armature current flows and it sets up armature flux
(shown by dotted blue lines). The resultant flux in the air gap is the sum of the main flux and the armature flux. The
resultant flux distribution is shown by green lines.
Due to armature reaction,
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i) The resultant flux distribution curve is distorted.

ii) Cross-magnetising effect: In the case of a DC generator, the flux-density under the leading pole tip is
decreased and whereas it is increased under the trailing pole tip. (The opposite is true in the case of a
motor).
iii) The flux density at the interpolar axis (or the geometric neutral axis GNA) is no longer zero but has an
appreciable finite value which depends on the armature current.
iv) The magnetic neutral axis MNA (point of zero flux density) which was at the geometric neutral axis at
no load is now shifted in the direction of rotation for generator.
v) If there is no saturation, the value of the useful flux per pole remains the same from its value at no-load;
it is merely the distribution of flux is altered.
vi) Demagnetising effect: With saturation, the increase in the value of flux density at trailing pole tip is not
as much as the decrease in the value of flux density at the leading pole tip. Hence, there will be reduction
in the value of useful flux per pole. Reduction in flux causes decrease in generated emf in case of DC
generators and increase in speed in case of DC motors.
DETRIMENTAL EFFECTS OF ARMATURE REACTION:

i) Reduction in emf: When the machine working under saturation conditions, the value of flux per pole
decreases due to armature reaction. Hence the emf generated decreases as the machine is loaded.
ii) Increase in iron loss: Iron loss in the teeth and pole shoe depends on the maximum value of flux density.
The maximum value of flux density at load is more than that on no-load. Hence, the iron loss at load is
more than that on no-load.
iii) Sparking: Due to armature reaction, maximum value of resultant flux increases on load, Hence, the
maximum voltage between adjacent commutator segments increases and it will lead to sparking between
adjacent segments.
iv) Delayed commutation: Due to armature reaction, the flux density in the interpolar axis (GNA) is not zero
but has a small finite value. This flux density generates an emf in the coils undergoing commutation and
hence delay commutation.
METHODS FOR REDUCING THE EFFECTS OF ARMATURE REACTION

The following are the methods used to reduce the effects of armature reaction.
i) Increase the length of air gap at pole tips: By increasing the length of air gap at the pole tips, the cross-
magnetising effect of armature reaction can be reduced.
ii) Increasing reluctance of pole tips: The cross-magnetising effect of armature reaction can be reduced
by increasing the reluctance of pole tips by adopting special construction of pole shoes.
iii) Compensating windings: The cross-magnetising effect of armature reaction can be neutralized by
providing compensating winding on the main pole shoe of a DC machine. Compensating winding is
connected in series with the armature winding in such a way that the current flowing in them is directly
opposite to the current flowing in the armature located just below the pole faces.
iv) Interpoles: Due to armature reaction, MNA is shifted forward in the direction of rotation in the case of
generators and there is a finite value of flux density at brush axis or GNA. This flux density produces a
generated emf in the coils undergoing commutation which tries to maintain the current in the original
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direction thus causing delayed commutation. In order that the commutation takes place at magnetic
neutral axis (at zero flux density), the armature reaction at the brush axis must be neutralized. This means
that another mmf should be applied at the brush axis which is equal and opposite to that of armature
mmf. This mmf is applied by interpoles. These poles are placed at GNA. Interpole winding is connected
in series with the armature winding.
BRUSH SHIFT AND ITS EFFECTS:

If the brushes lie in the geometric neutral axis, the entire armature reaction effect is cross-magnetising as shown in
figure.
However, if the brushes are shifted from GNA, a part of the armature reaction becomes demagnetising and the
remaining armature reaction is cross-magnetising. (Note: In some small DC machines, the brushes are shifted from
the position of the magnetic neutral axis in order to improve the commutation)
Let the brush-axis in a 2-pole DC generator be given a forward lead of angle  so as to lie along the new MNA
represented by line BC. Now consider the conductors lying within the angles AOB = COD = 2θ at the top and bottom
of the armature. They carry the current such that the flux produced will flow from right to left through armature.
These fluxes will act in direct opposition to the main field. So, these conductors cause demagnetising effect and are
known as demagnetising conductors.
Now consider the remaining conductors that lie between AOC and BOD. These conductors carry the current such
that the flux thus produced will point vertically downwards, that is, at right angles to the main flux. Since these fluxes
are responsible for distorting the main field flux, the conductors are called as cross magnetizing conductors and
constitute the cross-magnetizing ampere-turns of armature reaction.
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Let Z = number of armature conductors

P = No. of poles
Ic = current through armature conductor
Z ZI c
Total ampere-turns = I c  
2 2
ZI c
Total ampere-turns / pole =
2P
ZI c 2 
Demagnetising ampere-turns per pole =   ZI c 
2 360 360
 1  
Cross-magnetising ampere-turns per pole = ZI c   
 2 P 360 
An 8-pole, 120kW, 600V, wave connected DC generator has 540 conductors and is delivering full load current. If
the brushes are shifted by 4˚ (mechanical), calculate i) demagnetising and ii) cross-magnetising ampere-turns per
pole.
120000
IL   200 A
600
Assume I a  I L  200 A
Ia
Current through conductor, I c   100 A
2
 4
Demagnetising ampere-turns per pole = ZI c   540 100   600
360 360
 1    1 4 
Cross-magnetising ampere-turns per pole = ZI c     540 100      2775
 2 P 360   2  8 360 
An 6-pole, 400kW, 500V, lap connected DC generator has 1000 conductors and is delivering full load current. If
the brushes are shifted by 12˚ (electrical), calculate i) demagnetising and ii) cross-magnetising ampere-turns per
pole.
400000
IL   800 A
500
Assume I a  I L  800 A
Ia
Current through conductor, I c   133.33 A
6
P
elec   mech
2
 = 12/3 = 4˚ mechanical
 4
Demagnetising ampere-turns per pole = ZI c   1000 133.33 
 1481.44
360 360
 1    1 4 
Cross-magnetising ampere-turns per pole = ZI c     1000 133.33      9629.39
 2 P 360   2  6 360 
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A 500V, 4-pole, wave-wound, 1000rpm, DC shunt generator supplies a load of 200A. The armature has 720
conductors, 360 commutator segments and shunt field resistance is 125Ω. Find the cross-magnetising and
demagnetising ampere turns/pole, if the brushes are advanced through 3 commutator segments. At this load, also
calculate the extra shunt field turns/pole required to neutralize this demagnetisation.
VL 500
I sh    4A
Rsh 125
I a  I L  I sh  200  4  204 A
Ia
Current through conductor, I c   102 A
2
360
  3  3
360
 3
Demagnetising ampere-turns per pole = ZI c   720 102   612
360 360
 1    1 3 
Cross-magnetising ampere-turns per pole = ZI c     720 102      8568
 2 P 360   2  4 360 
Demagnetising ATs can be compensated by adding extra turns in shunt field winding.
ATd 612
Extra shunt field turns required =   153 turns
I sh 4
A 4-pole generator supplies a current of 143A. It has 492 armature conductors a) wave wound b) lap wound. When
delivering full-load, the brushes are given an actual lead of 10˚. Calculate the demagnetising ampere-turns per
pole. The field winding is shunt connected and takes 10A. Find the number of extra shunt field turns to neutralize
the demagnetization.
Ans: a) wave 1045.5ATs 105 turns b) lap 523ATs 52 turns
COMMUTATION
The currents induced in armature conductors of a DC generator are alternating. These currents flow in one direction
when armature conductors are under N-pole and in the opposite direction when they are under S-pole. As conductors
pass out of the influence of a N-pole and enter that of S-pole, the current in them is reversed. This reversal of current
takes place along magnetic neutral axis or brush axis. The process of current reversal in a coil while it crosses MNA
is called commutation.
Let us consider a DC generator in which the width of the commutator segments is equal to the width of the brushes.
Each armature coil contains two commutators attached at its end. Let the current flowing through the conductor be
Ic. Let A, B, C be the commutator segments. The current reversal in the coil can be explained with the following
steps.
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Step 1: Brush is fully on commutator segment A. Coil

1 carries current Ic towards left and coil 2 carries
current Ic towards right. Brush delivers a current 2Ic.
Step 2: As the armature rotates towards right, brush

makes contact with segment B in addition to segment
A. Coil 2 gets short-circuited and current in it starts
decreasing. Current (say i) flows from segment B to
brush. Output current remains 2Ic.
Step 3: When brush makes equal areas of contact with

segments A and B, each segment delivers Ic to the
brush and coil 2 carries no current (short-circuited
also). Output current is 2Ic.
Step 4: With further rotation of the armature and

commutator segments, area of contact between
segment A and brush starts decreasing and current
delivered by segment A decreases from Ic. At the same
time, current in coil 2 starts increasing in the opposite
direction. When brush is fully on segment B, current
in coil 2 increases to -Ic. Output current remains 2Ic.
The time required by the coil current to change from +Ic to -Ic during commutation is called commutation period.
During commutation period, the coil undergoing commutation remains short-circuited.
If the current reversal (+ Ic to −Ic) is completed by the end of commutation period, then the commutation is ideal or
linear commutation.
The ideal commutation (linear commutation) cannot be attained in practice. This is mainly due to the fact that the
armature coils have appreciable inductance. When the current in the coil undergoing commutation changes, self-
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induced e.m.f. (Ldi/dt) is produced in the coil. This is generally called reactance voltage. This reactance voltage
opposes the change of current in the coil undergoing commutation. The result is that the change of current in the coil
undergoing commutation occurs more slowly than it would be under ideal commutation.
In figure, straight line BC shows ideal commutation where current reaches -Ic at the end of commutation period. The
curve BE represents the change in current when self-inductance of the coil is taken into account. Here, the current
will not attain its full value in the negative direction instead it will be (Ic-i). The difference in currents i will jump
from segment to the brush through the air in the form of a spark.
METHODS FOR IMPROVING COMMUTATION
RESISTANCE COMMUTATION
High contact resistance between commutator segments and brushes, achieved by using carbon brushes, adds
resistance to the circuit of commutating coil thereby reducing the time constant (L/R) of the current transient helping
it to change faster in the desired direction. Carbon brushes are invariably used in DC machines. They also help reduce
commutator wear and are themselves easily replaceable.
EMF COMMUTATION
In this method, an arrangement is made to neutralize the reactance voltage by producing a reversing voltage in the
coil undergoing commutation. The reversing voltage acts in opposition to the reactance voltage and neutralizes it to
some extent. If the reversing voltage is equal to the reactance voltage, the effect of the latter is completely wiped out
and we get sparkless commutation. The reversing voltage may be produced in the following two ways:
i) Brush shifting
In this method, the brushes are given sufficient forward lead (for a generator) to bring the short-circuited
coil (i.e., coil undergoing commutation) under the influence of the next pole of opposite polarity. Since
the short-circuited coil is now in the reversing field, the reversing voltage produced cancels the reactance
voltage. This method suffers from the following drawbacks: (a) The reactance voltage depends upon
armature current. Therefore, the brush shift will depend on the magnitude of armature current which
keeps on changing. This necessitates frequent shifting of brushes. (b) The greater the armature current,
the greater must be the forward lead for a generator. This increases the demagnetizing effect of armature
reaction and further weakens the main field.
ii) Interpoles:
The best way to produce reversing voltage to neutralize the reactance voltage is by using interpoles or
compoles.
These are small poles fixed to the yoke and spaced mid-way between the main poles. They are wound
with comparatively few turns and connected in series with the armature so that they carry armature
current. Their polarity is the same as the next main pole ahead in the direction of rotation for a generator.
The machines fitted with interpoles have their brushes set on geometrical neutral axis (no lead). The
interpoles perform the following two functions: (i) As their polarity is the same as the main pole ahead
(for a generator), they induce an e.m.f. in the coil (undergoing commutation) which opposes reactance
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voltage. This leads to sparkless commutation. Since the interpoles carry the armature current and the
reactance voltage is proportional to armature current, the neutralization of reactance voltage is automatic.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DC GENERATORS
NO-LOAD CHARACTERISTICS or OPEN CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS
Plot between generated emf Eg on no-load and field current at a given speed is called open circuit characteristics
(OCC). OCC is just the magnetization curve and it is practically similar for all type of generators.
Open circuit characteristic is obtained as follows: Generator is driven at rated speed by a prime mover with load
terminals open circuited. Vary the field current and measure the terminal voltage each time.
OCC OF SEPARATELY EXCITED GENERATOR:
 ZN P
Generated emf, Eg  
60 A
At constant speed, Eg    I f
When If = 0, Eg is zero. When If is increased, Eg varies linearly with If as long as the machine is in unsaturated
condition. Further increases in field current causes the machine to get saturated and the curve becomes non-linear. In
saturation region, large increase in field current is required for a small increase in generated emf.
OCC at any other speed N2 can be obtained from the following relation.
N2
Eg 2  Eg1 
N1
OCC of SHUNT GENRATOR:
The connection diagram for doing no-load test on shunt generator is shown in figure. On no-load, IL = 0 and Ia = If.
Terminal voltage on no-load will be Eg  I f Ra . Since If and Ra are small, IfRa drop can be neglected.
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When the generator on on-load is rotated by using prime mover at speed N1 and if the switch S is open, a small emf
is induced in the armature due to residual magnetism present in the field core. Now, the field circuit is closed by
closing switch S. Emf due to residual magnetism circulates a small current in the field circuit which increases the
field flux (provided field winding is properly connected to armature, otherwise this current may wipe off the residual
magnetism). When flux is increased, generated e.m.f. is increased which further increases the flux and so on. This
process is continued till voltage is built up in the armature depending of field circuit resistance.
CONDITIONS FOR VOLTAGE BUILD UP IN DC SHUNT GENERATOR
(CONDITIONS FOR SELF-EXCITATION)
In nay self-excited generator, for self-excitation to take place the following conditions are to be satisfied:
i) The generator should have residual flux
ii) The field winding should be connected in such a manner that the flux set up by the field winding should
be in the same direction as that of residual flux.
iii) The field circuit resistance should be less than certain critical value called critical field resistance for a
particular speed.
iv) Speed should be greater than the critical speed
v) Load circuit resistance should be above certain critical value called critical load resistance for a particular
speed.
Generator fails to build-up emf if any of the above conditions are violated.
VOLTAGE BUILD-UP
Let Rf be the resistance of the field circuit. Line Rf is drawn such that its slope equals the field circuit resistance i.e.
every point on this curve is such that volt/ampere = Rf. The voltage OD corresponding to the meeting point of OCC
and line Rf represents the maximum voltage to which the machine will build up with R f as field circuit resistance.
If field resistance is increased, then slope of the resistance line is increased, and hence the maximum voltage to which
the generator will build up at a given speed, decreases.
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If Rf is increased such that the resistance line does not cut the O.C.C. at all, then obviously the machine will fail to
excite i.e. there will be no build-up of the voltage.
If the resistance line just lies along the slope, then with that value of field resistance, the machine will just excite.
The value of the resistance represented by the tangent to the curve, is known as critical resistance R c for a given
speed.
Generated emf Eg is proportional to speed. Hence, OCC at any other speed can be plotted by using the relation
N2
Eg 2  Eg1  .
N1
Critical speed (Nc) is the speed at which machine just excites for the given field circuit resistance.
Note : B = point on tangent (from origin) to OCC at rated speed.

C = point on the shunt field resistance line (here Rf)
Maximum voltage build-up with given shunt field resistance R f = OD
AB
Critical field resistance at rated speed = R fc 
OA
AC
Critical speed with given shunt field resistance Rf = N c  N1 
AB
OCC of a DC generator driven at 400rpm is as follows.
Field current (A) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Terminal volts 110 155 186 212 230 246 260 271
Find
i) The voltage to which the machine will excite when run as a shunt generator at 400rpm with shunt field
resistance equal to 34Ω.
ii) Resistance of shunt field circuit to reduce the OC voltage to 220V
iii) Critical shunt field resistance
iv) Critical speed if the shunt field circuit resistance is 34Ω
v) Lowest possible speed at which an OC voltage of 225V can be obtained
i) The voltage to which machine will excite = OM = 255V
ii) The horizontal line from N (220V) is drawn which cut the OCC at point B. Resistance represented by
line OB = 220/5.4 = 40.7Ω
iii) Line OC has been drawn which is tangential at the origin to the OCC. This represents the value of critical
resistance = 140/2.25 = 62.2Ω
iv) Take any convenient point D and erect a perpendicular which cuts bot OA and OC. DE/DF = Nc/400 or
110/202 = Nc/202; Nc = 218rpm
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v) From point P (225V) draw a horizontal line cutting OA at point G. From G, draw a perpendicular line
GK cutting the OCC at point H. If N is the lowest speed possible for getting 225V with 34Ω shunt circuit
resistance, the GK/HK = N’/400 or 225/241 or N’ = 375rpm.
The open circuit characteristics of a DC shunt generator at 300rpm is

Field current (A) 0 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Terminal volts 7.5 93 135 165 186 202 215
The field resistance is adjusted to 354.5Ω and the speed is 300rpm. Determine the following:
i) Graphically the no-load voltage
ii) Critical field resistance
iii) Critical speed for the given field resistance
iv) Additional resistance inserted in the field circuit to reduce the no-load voltage to 175V.
NO-LOAD CHARACTERISTICS OF SERIES GENERATOR

In a series generator, the armature winding, field winding and load resistance are connected in series, therefore the
field current is equal to the armature or load current. In view of this, the no-load magnetization curve can only be
obtained by separating exciting its field from a low voltage source so that armature current is always zero.
NO-LOAD CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPOUND GENERATOR
For the no-load characteristics, same current flows through the series field and shunt field windings in case of a long
shunt compound generator. Since the number of series field turns is far less than that of the shunt field turns, the
effect of series field mmf may be neglected in comparison with the shunt field mmf at no load. For a short-shunt
compound generator, series field carries no current when obtaining its no load characteristics. Thus the no-load
characteristic of a long-shunt and short shunt compound generator is the same as that of a shunt generator.
Long-shunt compound generator Short-shunt compound generator

LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
Load characteristics of DC generator can be broadly classified into two types i) external characteristics and ii) internal
characteristics.
External characteristics gives the relationship between the terminal voltage V and load current IL for constant speed.
Internal characteristics gives the relationship between the generated emf Eg and armature current Ia for constant speed.
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS OF SEPARATELY EXCITED DC GENERATOR
Armature is driven at constant speed by means of prime mover and the field excitation is adjusted to give rated
voltage on no-load and is then kept constant at this value throughout the operation.
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V  E g  I a Ra
Even though the flux and speed are constants, Eg drops off with load owing to the demagnetizing effect of the
armature reaction.
The external characteristic differs from the internal by the armature voltage drop IaRa.
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS OF DC SHUNT GENERATOR
For a dc shunt generator, as the load current increases (load resistance is decreased), the terminal voltage V decreases
from its no-load voltage Vo due to the following three reasons:
i) Voltage drop IaRa
ii) Armature reaction causes a reduction in the flux, induced emf and hence terminal voltage is
decreased
iii) As V decreases due to above two factors, the field current Ish (=V/Rsh) decreases, causing a further
decrease in terminal voltage V.
Thus the effects are cumulative and terminal voltage is reduced to a much greater extent. In the beginning the effect
of decrease in resistance predominates over the effect of decreased terminal voltage but when the load current reaches
a certain value (higher than the full load current) the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction and voltage drop in
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the armature become so important that a further decrease in load resistance causes a decrease in current rather than
increase and so the characteristic turns back.
When the terminals are short circuited, there is no terminal voltage and thus the shunt winding becomes inactive but
a small current is established due to a small voltage induced by the residual magnetism. Hence, the external
characteristic meets the current axis at point C.
If the armature resistance drop is added to the terminal voltage for all points and plotted against armature current the
new curve obtained will give relation between generated emf and armature current (Internal characteristic).
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS OF DC SERIES GENERATOR
The curve which shows the relation between no load voltage Eo and the field current If is called magnetic
characteristic. On no load, the load terminals are open circuited, there will be no field current in the field winding
since the armature, field and load are connected in series. So, this curve can be obtained practically be separating the
field winding and exciting the DC generator by an external DC source.
Here in the diagram below AB curve is showing the magnetic characteristic of series wound DC generator. The
linearity of the curve will continue till the saturation of the poles. After that there will be no further significant change
of terminal voltage of DC generator for increasing field current. Due to residual magnetism there will be a small
initial voltage across the armature that is why the curve started from a point A which is a little way up from the origin
O.
The internal characteristic curve gives the relation between voltage generated in the armature and the load current.
This curve is obtained by subtracting the drop due to the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction from the no load
voltage. So, the actual generated voltage (Eg) will be less than the no load voltage (E0). That is why the curve is
slightly dropping from the magnetic characteristic. Curve OC shows the internal characteristic of the series generator.
The external characteristic curve shows the variation of terminal voltage (V) with the load current (IL).
V  E g  I a ( Ra  Rse )
The external characteristic lies below the internal characteristic because the value of terminal voltage is less than the
generated voltage. Curve OD is showing the external characteristic of the series generator.
It can be observed from the characteristics, that with the increase in load, the terminal voltage of the machine
increases. But after reaching its maximum value it starts to decrease due to excessive demagnetizing effect of
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armature reaction. This phenomenon is shown in the figure by the dotted line. Dotted portion of the characteristic
gives approximately constant current irrespective of the external load resistance.
A series generator having a combined armature and field resistance of 0.4Ω is running at 1000rpm and delivering
5.5kW at a terminal voltage of 110V. If the speed is raised to 1500rpm and load adjusted to 10kW, find the new
current and terminal voltage. Assume the machine is working on the straight-line portion of the magnetisation
characteristic.
At 1000rpm,
V1 = 110V
5500
I L1   50 A
110
Eg1  V1  I L1 ( Ra  Rse )  110  50  0.4  130V
At 1500rpm,
N2 I L2 I
Eg 2  Eg1    130 1.5  L 2  3.9 I L 2
N1 I L1 50
10000
Eg 2  V2  I L 2 ( Ra  Rse )   I L 2  0.4
I L2
10000
3.9 I L 2   I L 2  0.4
IL2
3.5I L 2 2  10000
I L 2  53.452 A
10000 10000
V2    187.1A
IL2 53.452
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPOUND GENERATOR
Depending upon the connection of shunt field, compound generators are classified as short-shunt and long-shunt
generator. There will not be any appreciable change in the characteristic of these two classifications. Short-shunt
compound generators provide more voltage to the shunt field winding at a given load current. Hence, for generator
operation, short-shunt compound connection is preferable.
Short-shunt Long-shunt
The compound generator can be cumulatively compounded or differentially compounded generator. The latter is
rarely used in practice. It may be noted that external characteristics of long and short shunt compound generators are
almost identical.
With an increase in load current, the flux set up by the series field winding is in the same direction as that of the flux
set up by the shunt field coil, the resultant flux in the machine during load condition will be more than that on no-
load. The generator is now called cumulative compound generator.
If the flux set up by the series field winding during load condition is in the opposite direction of the shunt field flux,
the resultant flux will be difference between the shunt field flux and the series field flux and hence the generator is
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called differentially compound generator. For a differential compound generator, terminal voltage fills at a rapid rate
with increase in load current. Hence, differential compound generators does not have any useful application.
i) If the series field amp-turns are such as to produce the same voltage at rated load as at no-load, then the
generator is flat or level compounded. However, even in the case of a flat-compounded generator, the
voltage is not constant from no-load to rated-load. At half the load, the voltage is actually greater than
the rated voltage.
ii) If the series field amp-turns are such that the rated-load voltage is greater than the no-load voltage, then
generator is over-compounded.
iii) If rated-load voltage is less than the no-load voltage, then the generator is under-compounded. This is
due to the inadequate series field turns provided in the machine. Such generators are rarely used.
A 220V compound generator has armature, series-field and shunt-field resistances of 0.12Ω and 0.08Ω and 55Ω
respectively. The machine supplies power to 200 lamps each rated at 60W,220V. Find the emf generated and
armature current when the machine is connected a) long shunt and b) short-shunt. Allow 1V for brush contact
drop.
V = 220V
Pout  200  60  12000W
12000
IL   54.545 A
220
a) Long-shunt
V 220
I sh    4A
Rsh 55
I a  I L  I sh  54.545  4  58.545 A
Brush drop B.D. = 2V
Eg  V  I a ( Ra  Rse )  B.D.  220  58.545  (0.12  0.08)  2  233.709V
b) Short-shunt
V  I L Rse 220  54.545  0.08

I sh    4.079 A
Rsh 55
I a  I L  I sh  54.545  4.079  58.624 A
Eg  V  I a Ra  I L Rse  B.D.  220  58.624  0.12  54.545  0.08  2  233.4V
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COMPARISON OF CHARACTERISTICS OF DC GENERATORS
The terminal voltage of a separately-excited generator decreases slightly with an increase in the load current,
principally because of the voltage drop in the armature resistance. The field current of a series generator is the same
as the load current, so that the air-gap flux and hence the voltage vary widely with load. As a consequence, series
generators are not often used. The voltage of shunt generators drops off somewhat with load, but not in a manner that
is objectionable for many purposes. Compound generators are normally connected so that the mmf of the series
winding aids that of the shunt winding. The advantage is that through the action of the series winding the flux per
pole can increase with load, resulting in a voltage output which is nearly constant or which even rises somewhat as
load increases.
LOSSES & EFFICIENCY

For DC generators, the various losses are broadly classified into the following 3 types:
i) Magnetic losses: Magnetic losses occur in those parts of DC machines which form the path for the
magnetic field and are subjected to changes in the magnetic field. In short, magnetic losses occur in
armature core.
ii) Electrical losses: Electrical losses occur in those parts of DC machines which carry electric current. For
example, armature winding, field winding etc.
iii) Mechanical losses: Mechanical losses occur due to friction between moving and fixed parts of the
machine. The parts concerned are bearings, commutators and armature surfaces.
iv) Stray load losses
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MAGNETIC LOSSES
HYSTERESIS LOSS
Hysteresis losses occur in the armature winding due to reversal of magnetization of the core. When the core of the
armature exposed to the magnetic field, it undergoes one complete rotation of magnetic reversal. The portion of the
armature which is under S-pole, after completing half electrical revolution, the same piece will be under the N-pole,
and the magnetic lines are reversed in order to overturn the magnetism within the core. The constant process of
magnetic reversal in the armature, consume some amount of energy which is called hysteresis loss. The percentage
of loss depends upon the quality and volume of the iron.
Wh   Bmax1.6 fV
 = Steinmetz hysteresis coefficient
Bmax = Maximum flux density in armature core
f = frequency of magnetic reversal
V = volume of armature in m3
EDDY CURRENT LOSS
When armature rotates in the magnetic field, the small amount of emf induced in the core which allows the flow of
charge in the body due to the conductivity of the core. This current is useless for the machine. This loss of current is
called eddy current. This loss is almost constant for the DC machines. It can be minimized by selecting the laminated
core.
We  K e Bmax 2 f 2t 2V
Ke = constant
t = thickness of lamination
Machines running with almost constant speed and constant flux have constant iron loss.
Note: Hysteresis loss + Eddy current loss = Iron (or core) loss
ELECTRICAL LOSSES
Most of the electrical losses occur in the windings provided in the machine due to ohmic resistance offered by them.
The various copper losses are:
i) Armature Cu loss = Ia2Ra
ii) Shunt field Cu loss = Ish2Rsh
iii) Series field Cu loss = Ise2Rse
iv) Brush contact loss = VbIa
Shunt field Cu loss will be constant loss while the remaining copper losses are variable losses.
MECHANICAL LOSS
Mechanical losses in any rotating machine can be classes filed into two types.
i) Friction loss: This loss occurs due to friction at the bearings and on commutator surface. This loss is
directly proportional to the speed of the machine. W f  N
ii) Windage loss: This loss occurs due to air friction around the surface of the rotating armature. This loss
is proportional to the square of the speed of the machine. Ww  N 2
STRAY LOAD LOSSES

These are produced by a) the distortion of the air-gap flux due to the armature reaction and b) the short-circuit current
in the coil undergoing commutation. These losses are difficult to determine. In small machines, stray load losses are
neglected. But, for large machines, they are taken as 1% of the rated output.
Note: Rotational loss = Iron loss + Mechanical loss
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POWER FLOW DIAGRAM
The following are the three efficiencies calculated for DC generators:

Electrical power developed
i) Mechanical efficiency m =
Mechanical power input
Electrical power output
ii) Electrical efficiency e =
Electrical power developed
Electrical power output
iii) Overall efficiency  =
Mechanical power input
 = m e
A 400V DC shunt generator has a full load current of 190A. Its armature resistance is 0.08Ω; shunt field resistance
200Ω, iron and mechanical loss together 2000W. Find the full load efficiency.
Electrical power output = VIL = 400 x 190 = 76000W
V 400
I sh    2A
Rsh 200
Ia =I L +I sh  190  2  192 A
Total Cu loss = I a 2 R a +I sh 2 R sh  1922  0.08  22  200  3749.12W
Mechanical power input = 76000+3749.12+2000=81749.12W
76000
=  92.97%
81749.12
MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY
Efficiency Vs power output (as a percentage of full load output) curve is shown below. Efficiency increases with
output, reaches a maximum value and then decreases. Usually, maximum efficiency occurs between 75% and 100%
of power output.
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For a shunt generator,

Pin =VI L +I a 2 R a +Wc where Wc = constant loss = Shunt field Cu loss + Core loss + Mechanical loss
For a series generator,
Pin =VI L +I a 2 (R a +R se )+Wc where Wc = constant loss = Core loss + Mechanical loss
For a long-shunt compound generator,
Pin =VIL +I a 2 (R a +R se )+Wc where Wc = constant loss = Shunt field Cu loss + Core loss + Mechanical loss
For a short-shunt compound generator,
Pin =VIL +I a 2 R a +I L 2 R se +Wc  VI L +I a 2 (R a +R se )+Wc where Wc = constant loss = Shunt field Cu loss + Core loss
+ Mechanical loss
For a shunt generator, assuming IL = Ia,
VIL
=
VIL  I L 2 Ra  Wc
d
For maximum efficiency, =0
dI L
(VI L  I L 2 Ra  Wc )  V  VI L  (V  2 I L Ra )  0
VI L  I L 2 Ra  Wc  VI L  2 I L 2 Ra  0
I L 2 Ra  Wc
For a shunt generator, efficiency is maximum, when variable loss is equal to constant loss, ie. I a 2 Ra  Wc
For compound generator, efficiency is maximum when I a 2 ( Ra  Rse )  Wc .
Wc
The load current corresponding to maximum efficiency, I L 
Ra
A 400V DC shunt generator has a full load current of 190A. Its armature resistance is 0.08Ω; shunt field resistance
200Ω, iron and mechanical loss together 2000W. Find the load current at which efficiency is maximum and the
value of maximum efficiency.
V 400
I sh    2A
Rsh 200
Constant loss, Wc = I sh 2 R sh  mech loss+core loss  2 2  200  2000  2800W
Wc 2800
The load current corresponding to maximum efficiency, I L    187.08 A
Ra 0.08
Total loss at maximum efficiency = 2Wc  2  2800  5600W
Electrical power output at maximum efficiency = VIL = 400 x 187.08 = 74832W
Mechanical power input = 74832+5600=80432W

74832
=  93.04%
80432
A long shunt compound generator running at 1000rpm supplies 22kW at a terminal voltage 220V. The resistance
of armature, shunt field and series field are 0.05Ω, 110Ω and 0.06Ω respectively. The overall efficiency at above
load is 88%. Find a) copper loss b) iron and friction losses.
V 220
I sh    2A
Rsh 110
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22000
IL   100 A
220
Ia =I L +I sh  100  2  102 A
Total Cu loss = I a 2 (R a +R se )+I sh 2 R sh  1022  (0.05  0.06)  2 2 110  1584.44W
Pout 22000
Mechanical input = Pin    25000W
 0.88
Total losses = 25000 – 22000 = 3000W
Iron loss + Mechanical loss = 3000 – 1584.44 = 1415.56W
A 10kW, 250V DC shunt generator has total no-load rotational loss of 400W. The armature circuit (including
brushes) and shunt field resistances are 0.5Ω and 250Ω respectively. Calculate the shaft power input and the
efficiency at rated load. Also calculate the maximum efficiency and the corresponding power output.
10000
IL   40 A
250
V 250
I sh    1A
Rsh 250
Ia =I L +I sh  40  1  41 A
Constant loss, Wc = I sh 2 R sh  mech loss+core loss  12  250  400  650W
Total loss = I a 2 R a +Wc  412  0.5  650  1490.5W
Mechanical power input = 10000+1490.5=11490.5W
10000
=  87.03%
11490.5
At maximum efficiency, variable loss = constant loss = 400W
Total loss at maximum efficiency = 2Wc  2  650  1300W
Wc 650
The load current corresponding to maximum efficiency, I L    36.06 A
Ra 0.5
Power output at maximum efficiency = VIL = 250 x 36.06 = 9015W
Power input at maximum efficiency = 9015+1300=10315W

9015
 max =  100  87.4%
10315
PARALLEL OPERATION OF DC GENERATORS
The required capacity of a power station can be met by either installing a single generator of required capacity or
number of generators in parallel.
Need for parallel operation is
i) The total load requirement can not be met by a single alternator
ii) During periods of light load, one or more alternators may be shutdown, and the remaining operates at
or near full load so that efficiency is maximum.
iii) If there is a breakdown of a generator, there is no total interruption of the power supply.
iv) When one machine is taken out of service for its maintenance and inspection, the remaining machines
maintain the continuity of supply.
v) In order to meet the increasing future demand of load, more machines can be added without disturbing
the original installation.
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CONDITIONS FOR PARALLEL OPERATION

While connecting two or more DC generators in parallel, the following conditions are to be satisfied:
i) All the generators should have equal terminal voltage
ii) The polarity of the incoming generator should be the same as the existing generators.
SHUNT GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
The generators in a power plant are connected in parallel through bus-bars. The bus-bars are heavy thick copper bars
and they act as +ve and -ve terminals. The positive terminals of the generators are connected to the +ve side of bus-
bars and negative terminals to the negative side of bus-bars.
Initially, shunt generator 1 is connected to the bus-bars and supplying load. When the load on the power plant
increases beyond the capacity of this generator, the second shunt generator 2 is to be connected in parallel with the
first to meet the increased load demand. The procedure for paralleling generator 2 with generator 1 is as under:
i) Initially, switch S is open. The prime mover of generator 2 (incoming generator) is brought up to the
rated speed.
ii) Field current of incoming generator is adjusted so that its terminal voltage is nearly equal to the bus-bar
voltage VL.
iii) The polarity of this voltage is checked with the polarity of the bus-bar voltage with the help of the polarity
check voltmeter Vp. Low value of reading indicates the correct polarity. Otherwise, interchange the
armature terminals of incoming generator.
iv) Now, adjust the field current of incoming generator till the voltameter Vp reads zero. It indicates that the
terminal voltage of incoming generator is equal to the bus-bar voltage. Now, switch S is closed, thus
putting generator 2 in parallel with generator 1.
v) Just after parallel operation, generator 2 will be just floating on the bus-bar, neither delivering nor
receiving any current.
vi) If generator 2 is to deliver any current, then it's generated voltage E2 should be greater than the bus-bar
voltage VL. In that case, the current supplied by it is Ia2 = (E2 - VL)/Ra. By increasing the field current
(and hence induced e.m.f. E2), the generator 2 can be made to supply the proper amount of load.
LOAD SHARING OF GENERATORS

VL VL
I sh1  I sh 2 
Rsh1 Rsh 2
I a1  I L1  I sh1
I a 2  I L 2  I sh 2
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E1  VL
E1  VL  I a1 Ra1 or I a1 
Ra1
E2  VL
E2  VL  I a 2 Ra 2 or I a 2 
Ra 2
I L  I L1  I L 2
 1 1 1 1 1  E1 E2
VL       
 RL Ra1 Ra 2 Rsh1 Rsh 2  Ra1 Ra 2
Two DC shunt generators operating in parallel supply a load of resistance 0.1Ω. The open circuit voltage, armature
and field resistances of the generators are 250V, 0.02Ω, 50Ω and 240V, 0.025Ω, 55Ω respectively. Calculate the
bus-bar voltage and the current delivered by each generator.
I L  I L1  I L 2
VL E1  VL VL E2  VL VL E E  1 1 1 1 
     1  2  VL     
RL Ra1 Rsh1 Ra 2 Rsh 2 Ra1 Ra 2  Ra1 Ra 2 Rsh1 Rsh 2 
 1 1 1 1 1  E1 E2
VL       
 RL Ra1 Ra 2 Rsh1 Rsh 2  Ra1 Ra 2
 1 1 1 1 1  250 240
VL       
 0.1 0.02 0.025 50 55  0.02 0.025
VL  220.916V
E1  VL 250  220.916
I a1    1454.2 A
Ra1 0.02
E2  VL 240  220.916
Ia2    763.36 A
Ra 2 0.025
VL 220.916
I sh1    4.42 A
Rsh1 50
VL 220.916
I sh 2    4.02 A
Rsh 2 55
I L1  I a1  I sh1  1454.2  4.42  1449.78 A
I L 2  I a 2  I sh 2  763.36  4.02  759.34 A
I L  I L1  I L 2  1449.78  759.34  2209.12 A
Two DC shunt generators operating in parallel deliver a total output of 320kW. The induced emf and armature
resistance of the generators are 450V, 0.02Ω and 460V, 0.025Ω respectively. Find the bus-bar voltage and the kW
output of each generator. Neglect shunt field current.
 E V E V 
P  VL ( I L1  I L 2 )  VL  1 L  2 L 
 Ra1 Ra 2 
 450  VL 460  VL 
320000  VL  
 0.02 0.025 
320000  22500VL  50VL 2  18400VL  40VL 2
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VL 2  4090VL  32000  0
VL  446.481V
E1  VL 450  446.481
I L1    175.95 A
Ra1 0.02
E2  VL 460  446.481
IL2    540.76 A
Ra 2 0.025
P1  VL I L1  446.481 175.95  78.558kW
P2  VL I L 2  446.481 540.76  241.439kW
Two DC shunt generators run in parallel to supply together 2500A. The machines have armature resistances of
0.04Ω and 0.025Ω, field resistances of 25Ω and 20Ω and induced emfs of 440V and 420V respectively. Find the
bus-bar voltage and output of each machine.
Ans: - 388.7V, 492.54kW, 479.21kW
Two DC shunt generators with emfs of 120V and 115V, armature resistances of 0.05Ω and 0.04Ω and field
resistances of 20Ω and 25Ω respectively are in parallel supplying a total load of 25kW. How do they share the
load?
Ans: - 112V, 154.4A, 68.81A, 17.293kW, 7.707kW
SERIES GENERATORS IN PARALLEL

DC series generators are not usually operated in parallel. DC series generators are put in parallel for electric traction
purposes to provide electric braking of motors in electric trains, cars etc.
For satisfactory parallel operation of dc series generators, it is necessary to connect the armatures of the two machines
through a heavy copper bar, called the equalizing bar.
PARALLEL OPERATION WITHOUT EQUALIZING BAR
Let two DC generators G1 and G2 of resistance R (the armature and field resistance), induced emfs E1 and E2 operate
in parallel, as shown in the figure. When the induced emfs E1 and E2 are equal they will share the equal load. There
is a problem when induced emfs are different in the two machines. When one of the induced emf becomes greater
than another induced emf, a circulating current will flow.
If E1 becomes slightly greater than E2, then a current i will circulate in the clockwise direction, as shown by dotted
lines in the figure. The magnitude of the circulating current i will be (E1-E2) /2R. Now, total current supplied by G1
will be (I + i) and by G2 will be (I – i). So the series field current of G1 increases and that of G2 decreases. The
characteristic of a DC series generator is a rising characteristic. Hence the induced emf of generator G1 (=E1) will
rise and induced emf of generator G2 (=E2) will fall. The difference of the two induced emfs E1 and E2 will increase,
which will cause a further increase in circulating current.
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The effect is cumulative and if there were no fuse or automatic switch in the circuit, the current in G2 will be
reversed. This will reverse the direction of induced emf E2 and resultant emf in the circuit would be [E1 – (- E2)] i.e.
(E1 + E2) and circulating current (E1+ E2)/2R.
Thus the two emfs will then act in series around a circuit of very low resistance and conditions are virtually those of
a short-circuit on the two machines resulting in damage of the machines. We have to avoid this short circuit problem
for the parallel operation of DC series generators.
PARALLEL OPERATION WITH EQUALIZING BAR

Here, comes the use of equalizer bars in the parallel operation of DC series generators.
The possibility of reversal of either machine can be prevented by preventing the flow of circulating current produced
due to inequalities of induced emfs of the machines through the series field winding.
This aim can be achieved by connecting a heavy copper bar of negligible resistance across the two machines as shown
in the figure. Now the circulating current does not affect the field winding, but it gets confined to the armature and
the equalizing bars. Now if the armature current increases, the terminal voltage drop occurs and the original condition
is restored.
COMPOUND GENERATORS IN PARALLEL

Consider two compound generators G1 and G2 running in parallel as shown in the figure.
As the voltage characteristics for the over and level compound generators are rising, their parallel operation is
unstable in the absence of equalizing bar.
Let us consider that each generator is taking proper share of load. If for some reason, the generator G1 takes increased
load slightly then the current passing through its series field winding increases strengthening its field to increase the
generated emf. This causes generator G1 to take still more load. If system load is assumed to be constant then the
load on generator G2 will decrease weakening its series field due to less current passing through its field winding
which results in further decrease in its load. This effect is cumulative which leads generator G1 to take the entire load
and generator G2 will be driven as motor. The circuit breakers of at least one of the two generators will open to stop
the parallel operation.
For stable parallel operation of over and level compound generators, equalizing bars are used. It is connected to the
armature ends of the series coils of the generators. The equalizing bar is also a conductor which is not required in
case of under compound generator as their characteristics are not rising.
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Now consider that the same two compound generators are operating in parallel with equalizing bar between them. If
for any reason, generator G1 starts taking more load than its proper share then its series field current is increased. But
now this increased field current will pass partly through series field winding of generator G1 and partly through series
field winding of generator G2 via equalizing bar. Thus the two generators are affected in similar way preventing
generator G1 from taking extra load.
APPLICATIONS OF DC GENERATORS
Applications of separately excited generators:
This type of DC generators are generally more expensive than self-excited DC generators because of their
requirement of separate excitation source. Because of that their applications are restricted. They are generally used
where the use of self-excited generators are unsatisfactory.
1. Because of their ability of giving wide range of voltage output, they are generally used for testing purpose in
the laboratories.
2. Separately excited generators operate in a stable condition with any variation in field excitation. Because of
this property they are used as supply source of DC motors, whose speeds are to be controlled for various
applications. Example- Ward Leonard Systems of speed control.
Applications of shunt generators:
The application of shunt generators is very much restricted for its dropping voltage characteristic.
1. They are used for general lighting.
2. They are used to charge battery because they can be made to give constant output voltage.
3. They are used for giving the excitation to the alternators.
4. They are also used for small power supply (such as a portable generator).
Applications of series generators:
These types of generators are restricted for the use of power supply because of their increasing terminal voltage
characteristic with the increase in load current from no load to full load. They give constant current in the dropping
portion of the characteristic curve. For this property they can be used as constant current source and employed for
various applications.
1. They are used for supplying field excitation current in DC locomotives for regenerative breaking.
2. Series generators are used as boosters to compensate the voltage drop in the feeder in various types
of distribution systems such as railway service.
3. In series arc lightening this type of generators are mainly used.
Applications of compound generators:
Among various types of DC generators, the compound wound DC generators are most widely used because of its
compensating property. Depending upon number of series field turns, the cumulatively compounded generators may
be over compounded, flat compounded and under compounded. We can get desired terminal voltage by compensating
the drop due to armature reaction and ohmic drop in the in the line. Such generators have various applications.
1. Cumulative compound wound generators are generally used for lighting, power supply purpose and for heavy
power services because of their constant voltage property. They are mainly made over compounded.
2. Cumulative compound wound generators are also used for driving a motor.
3. For small distance operation, such as power supply for hotels, offices, homes and lodges, the flat compounded
generators are generally used.
4. The differential compound wound generators, because of their large demagnetization armature reaction, are
used for arc welding where huge voltage drop and constant current is required
At present time the applications of DC generators become very limited because of technical and economic reasons.
Now a days the electric power is mainly generated in the form of alternating current with the help of various power
electronics devices.
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Qn.No. Question Answer
1 The armature core of a DC machine is laminated to minimize ------- loss.
2 In DC machines, armature should be always rotating type, otherwise -------- is not
possible.
3 Lap winding is suitable for -------- current, -------- voltage DC generators.
4 No. of parallel paths for 8-pole wave wound DC generator is ---------.
5 In a 6-pole, 30 slot, wave wound double layer DC machine, the winding pitch is --------.
6 In a 6-pole, 30 slot, wave wound double layer DC machine, the front pitch is --------.
7 For a 6-pole wave-wound DC generator, armature current is 60A. The current through
any conductor is --------.
8 For a 6-pole wave wound DC generator, total number of armature conductors is 60. Total
number of turns will be --------.
9 For a 6-pole lap-wound DC generator, flux per pole is 1Wb, speed is 600rpm, No. of
armature conductors is 60. Generated emf is -------.
10 For a 6-pole machine, angle is given as 60˚electrical. Angle in mechanical degree is -----
----.
11 For a DC shunt generator, generated emf is 100V, armature current is 10A and armature
resistance is 0.5Ω. The voltage across shunt field winding is ---------.
12 For a DC long-shunt compound generator, generated emf is 100V, armature current is
10A, armature resistance is 0.5Ω; series field resistance is 0.5Ω. The voltage across shunt
field winding is ---------.
13 For a DC short-shunt compound generator, generated emf is 100V, armature current is
10A, armature resistance is 0.5Ω; series field resistance is 0.5Ω. The voltage across shunt
field winding is ---------.
14 For a full-pitched winding, the distance between the two sides of a coil will be --------˚
electrical.
15 A 4-pole DC generator runs at 1500rpm. The frequency of current in the armature winding
is ------- Hz.
16 The commutator segments of DC machine are made up of ---------.
17 For a 12 slot, 4-pole, lap connected double layer DC generator, front pitch is 5 and back
pitch is 7. It will be --------- winding. (progressive / retrogressive)
18 For a long-shunt DC compound generator, armature current is 10A and shunt field current
is 1A. The current through the series field winding is -------- A.
19 For a short-shunt DC compound generator, armature current is 10A and shunt field current
is 1A. The current through the series field winding is -------- A.
20 For a separately excited DC generator, flux is assumed to be constant. At 600rpm, no-
load voltage is 150V. At 1200rpm, no-load voltage is --------.
21 For a 4-pole lap connected DC generator, total ampere-turns per pole is 250. For a brush
shift of 3˚, the demagnetizing ampere-turns per pole will be --------.
22 For a 4-pole lap connected DC generator, total ampere-turns per pole is 250. For a brush
shift of 3˚, the cross-magnetizing ampere-turns per pole will be --------.
23 For a DC generator, the effect of armature reaction is to --------- the flux at leading pole
tip.
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24 For a DC generator, if there is no saturation, the effect of armature reaction is

……………. (magnetizing/demagnetizing/cross-magnetizing)
25 Due to demagnetizing effect of armature reaction in a DC generator, iron loss ----------.
(decreases/increases/remains constant)
26 Due to demagnetizing effect of armature reaction in a DC generator, the generated emf -
------.
27 The armature mmf of a DC machine is --------- in shape.
28 For a DC generator on load, flux is maximum at -------- pole tip.
29 In a clockwise rotating DC generator, the brush axis should be shifted in -----------
direction.
30 No. of equalizer rings required for a 4-pole, 12-slot wave wound DC generator is --------
-.
31 Two 4 pole DC machines of identical armature, one with wave winding and other with
lap winding are wound. ------ wound generator will have more generated emf.
32 In DC machine, eddy current losses occur in -------- core. (armature / field)
33 Compensating windings are connected in series with ------- winding. (armature / field)
34 Coils of interpoles are connected in series with ------ winding. (armature / field)
35 Brushes in DC machines are made up of -------.
36 ------- DC generators cannot build up voltage on open circuit.
37 If a residual magnetism of a shunt generator is destroyed accidentally, it can be restored
by connecting its shunt field to a ----------.
38 If the field circuit resistance is -------- than critical field resistance, shunt generator will
not build up.
39 If the speed is -------- than critical speed, shunt generator will not build up.
40 Iron loss and mechanical in a DC generator together is called ------------ losses.
41 Two resistances in a DC shunt generator is 110Ω and 0.5Ω. Generated emf is 120V.
Armature current is 20A. Terminal voltage is ---------.
Armature current is 20A. Shunt field current is -------.
Armature current is 20A. Load current is -------.
44 The insulating material used between commutator segments is -------.
45 If the brushes are along GNA, the effect of armature reaction is --------. Neglect saturation.
46 If the brushes are along MNA, the effect of armature reaction is -------. Neglect saturation.
47 Equalizer rings are required in ------ wound generators.
48 Equalizing bars are required in --------- generators for parallel operation.
49 Interpoles are used for reducing armature reaction and for smooth commutation. This
statement is -------. (wrong/true)
50 Compensating windings are used for reducing armature reaction and for smooth
commutation. This statement is -------. (wrong/true)
51 In a ------- excited generator, residual magnetism is not needed for voltage build-up.
52 ------- is essential for voltage build-up in a compound generator.
53 In a DC generator, GNA and MNA are same. Then the generator is on ------- load. (full /
no)
54 A DC generator is on no-load. The shape of air-gap flux distribution is ------. (triangular
/ nearly sinusoidal / flat topped)
55 The purpose of dummy coil is to provide ------------ for rotor.
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56 ------ shunt compound generator will have more voltage across shunt field winding.
57 For a 6-pole, 12 slot, 12 commutator segment lap winding, the no. of tappings on each
equalizer ring will be -------.
58 For a level compound generator, full-load voltage is ------- no-load voltage. (greater than
/ less than / equal to)
59 For a level compound generator, full-load voltage is ------- half-load voltage. (greater than
/ less than / equal to)
60 The terminal voltage of a series generator is 150V when the load current is 5A. If the load
current is increased to 10A, the terminal voltage will be ------- than 150V. (greater / less)
61 The terminal voltage of a shunt generator is 150V when the load current is 5A. If the load
current is increased to 10A, the terminal voltage will be ------- than 150V. (greater / less)
62 No. of parallel paths in a 2-pole DC generator with duplex lap winding is -------.
63 Series field of a short-shunt compound generator is excited by -------- current. (armature
/ load)
64 Series field of a long-shunt compound generator is excited by -------- current. (armature /
load)
65 Dummy coils are not required for ------ connected DC generators.
66 DC generators are usually designed to develop armature voltages not exceeding 650V
because of the limitations imposed by -------. (field winding / armature winding /
commutator)
67 In DC series generator, constant loss is composed of ---------.
68 In DC shunt generator, constant loss is composed of ---------.
69 For a 9kW DC shunt generator, full-load efficiency is 90%. The total losses will be ------
--.
70 For a 9kW DC shunt generator, maximum efficiency is 90%. Its armature Cu loss will be
---------.
71 For a 9kW DC shunt generator, maximum efficiency is 90%. Its constant loss will be ----
-----.
72 Two DC shunt generators are operating in parallel. The bus bar voltage is 200V. Induced
emf of generator 1 is 220V with Ra1 = 0.2Ω. Induced emf of generator 2 is 225V with Ra2
= 0.25Ω. Neglect shunt field current. Total current supplied by both generators will be --
-----.
= 0.25Ω. Neglect shunt field current. Power supplied by generator 1 will be -------.
= 0.25Ω. Neglect shunt field current. Total power supplied by both generators will be ---
----.
75 A DC shunt generator builds up 230V when driven in clockwise direction. In case it is
driven in anticlockwise direction, other things remaining unchanged, then the voltage
build up -------. (possible / not possible)
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Module 3 DC motor –back emf, generation of torque, torque equation, performance characteristics –
numerical problems. Starting of dc motors- starters –3point and 4-point starters (principle only). Speed
control of dc motors - field control, armature control. Braking of dc motors. Power flow diagram – losses
and efficiency. Testing of dc motors - Swinburne's test, Hopkinson's test, and retardation test. DC motor
applications – numerical problems.
DC MOTOR
A DC machine acts as a generator or a motor depending on whether it is driven by a prime mover to supply electrical
power or is supplied by electrical power to obtain mechanical output. An electric motor is a machine which converts
electrical energy into mechanical energy. Its action is based on the principle that when a current-carrying conductor
is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force whose direction is given by Fleming’s left-hand rule
and whose magnitude is given by F  B  I  l newtons.
When the armature of the DC motor rotates under the influence of driving torque, the armature of the conductors
moves through a magnetic field inducing an emf in them. The induced emf is in the opposite direction to the applied
voltage and is known as the back emf.
Some advantages of back emf are listed below:
 The energy conversion in the DC motor is possible because of the back emf.
The mechanical energy induced in the motor is the product of the back emf and the armature current, i.e.,
EbIa.
 A DC motor is made self-regulating because of back emf.
i.e., the back emf develops the armature current according to the need of the motor. The armature current of
V  Eb  ZN P
the motor is calculated as: I a  where Eb = back emf = 
Ra 60 A
Let’s understand how the back emf makes motor self-regulating.
 Consider the motor is running at no-load condition. At no load, the DC motor requires small torque for
controlling the friction and windage loss. The motor withdraws less current. As the back emf depends on the
current their value also decreases. The magnitude of the back EMF is nearly equal to the supply voltage.
 If the sudden load is applied to the motor, the motor becomes slow down. As the speed of the motor decreases,
the magnitude of their back emf also falls down. The small back emf withdraw heavy current from the supply.
The large armature current induces the large torque in the armature, which is the need of the motor. Thus,
the motor moves continuously at a new speed.
 If the load on the motor is suddenly reduced, the driving torque on the motor is more than the load torque.
The driving torque increases the speed of the motor which also increases their back emf. The high value of
back emf decreases the armature current. The small magnitude of armature current develops less driving
torque, which is equal to the load torque. And the motor will rotate uniformly at the new speed.
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Network Equations
Separately excited DC motor Shunt motor Series motor
I L  Ia I L  I a  I sh I L  I a  I se
V  Eb  I a Ra V V  Eb  I a Ra
I sh 
Rsh
V  Eb  I a Ra
Short-shunt compound motor Long-shunt compound motor For all motors,
I L  I a  I sh I L  I a  I sh  ZN P
Back emf, Eb  
60 A
I se  I L I se  I a
Power input, Pin  VI L
V  I L Rse Eb  I a Ra V E  I ( R  Rse )
I sh   I sh   b a a Power developed, Pd  Eb I a
Rsh Rsh Rsh Rsh
PZ Eb I a
V  Eb  I a Ra  I L Rse V  Eb  I a ( Ra  Rse ) Torque devpd, Td   Ia 
2 A 2 ( N / 60)
A 4-pole 500V DC shunt motor has 700 wave-connected conductors on its armature. The full-load armature current
is 60A and flux per pole is 30mWb. Calculate the full-load speed if the motor armature resistance is 0.2Ω and the
brush drop is 1V per brush.
V = 500V
Eb  V  I a Ra  B.D.  500  60  0.2  2 1  486V
 ZN P
Eb  
60 A
0.03  700  N 4
486  
60 2
N = 694 rpm
A shunt machine running as a generator at 500rpm delivers 40kW at 250V. What will be the speed of the machine
when running as motor from 250V mains and drawing 40kW? The armature and field resistances are 0.02Ω and
50Ω respectively. Take brush drop as 1V per brush.
a) GENERATOR
40000
IL   160 A
250
250
I sh   5A
50
I a  I L  I sh  160  5  165 A
Eg  V  I a Ra  B.D.  250  165  0.02  2 1  255.3V
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b) MOTOR
40000
IL   160 A
250
250
I sh   5A
50
I a  I L  I sh  160  5  155 A
EB  V  I a Ra  B.D.  250  155  0.02  2 1  244.7V
Eb N m

Eg N g
244.7 Nb

255.3 500
Nm = 479.24 rpm
TORQUE EQUATION
Let P = No. of main poles
Z = total number of armature conductors
Ia
Ic = current through each armature conductor =
A
D = diameter of the armature core in m
L = length of the armature core in m
Bav = average flux density in the air gap
A current carrying conductor experiences a force when it is place in a uniform magnetic field.
Force developed in each conductor is given by
Fc  Bav Ic L
 D 
But Bav  and pole-pitch   (Note:- Bav  )
L P Area under one pole
Hence, Bav 
P
 DL
 P Ia P
Fc   L    Ia
 DL A  DA
Force developed by all Z conductors,
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PZ
F  Ia
 DA
PZ D PZ
Torque developed, Td  F  r   Ia     I a N-m
 DA 2 2 A
Power developed Pd  rTd  Eb Ia
PZ Eb I a
Torque developed, Td   Ia 
2 A  N 
2
 
 60 
A 220V DC shunt motor runs at 1000rpm while taking a current of 25A. The resistance of the armature is 0.2Ω
and that of shunt field circuit is 110Ω. Calculate the speed when the load is increased so that the motor takes a
current of 50A. During this increase in load, armature reaction weakens the field by 2%. The voltage drop per
brush is 1V. Determine the torque developed in both cases.
V = 220V
N1 = 1000rpm IL1 = 25A
220
I sh   2A
110
I a1  I L1  I sh  25  2  23 A
Eb1  V  I a1Ra  B.D.  220  23  0.2  2  213.4V
IL2 = 50A
I a 2  I L 2  I sh  50  2  48 A
Eb 2  V  I a 2 Ra  B.D.  220  48  0.2  2  208.4V
Eb   N
Eb 2 2 N 2

Eb1 1 N1
208.4 0.98 N 2
 
213.4 1 1000
N 2  996.5 Nm
Eb I a
Td 
 2 N 
 
 60 
E I 213.4  23
Td 1  b1 a1   46.87 Nm
 2 N1   2  1000 
   
 60   60 
Eb 2 I a 2 208.4  48
Td 2    95.86 Nm
 2 N 2   2  996.5 
   
 60   60 
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LOSSES & EFFICIENCY
POWER FLOW DIAGRAM
The following are the three efficiencies calculated for DC motors:

Mechanical power developed
i) Electrical efficiency e =
Electrical power input
Mechanical power output
ii) Mechanical efficiency  m =
Mechanical power developed
Mechanical power output
iii) Overall efficiency  =
Electrical power input
 =e m
CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY
For a shunt motor, assuming IL = Ia,
VI L  I L 2 Ra  Wc
= where Wc is the constant loss
VI L
d
For maximum efficiency, =0
dI L
VI L  (V  2 I L Ra )  (VI L  I L 2 Ra  Wc )  V  0
VI L  2 I L 2 Ra  VI L  I L 2 Ra  Wc  0
I L 2 Ra  Wc
For a shunt motor, efficiency is maximum, when variable loss is equal to constant loss, ie. I a 2 Ra  Wc
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For compound motor, efficiency is maximum when I a 2 ( Ra  Rse )  Wc .
Wc
The line current corresponding to maximum efficiency, I L 
Ra
A 250V 15kW shunt motor has a maximum efficiency of 88% and a speed of 700rpm, when delivering 80% of its
rated output. The resistance of its shunt field is 100Ω. Determine the efficiency and speed when the motor draws
a current of 78A from the mains.
Output at maximum efficiency = 0.8 x 15000 = 12000W

Input at maximum efficiency = 12000/0.88 = 13636.36W
Total losses = 13636.36 – 12000 = 1636.36W
Constant loss = 1636.36/2 = 818.18W
13626.36
Line current, I L   54.55 A
250
V 250
I sh    2.5 A
Rsh 100
Armature current, Ia =I L -I sh  54.55  2.5  52.05 A
Armature Cu loss at max efficiency, I a 2 Ra  818.18W
818.18 818.18
Ra    0.302
Ia2 52.052
For line current, I L  78 A
Input = VIL = 250 x 78 = 19500W
Ia =I L -I sh  78  2.5  75.5 A
Total loss = I a 2 R a  Wc  75.52  0.302  818.18  2539.7W
Output = 19500 – 2539.7 = 16960.3W
16960.3
=  86.98%
19500
Eb1  V  I a1  R a  250  52.05  0.302  234.28V
Eb 2  V  I a 2  R a  250  75.5  0.302  227.2V
Eb
N

Eb 2 1 227.2
N2    N1  1 700  678.8rpm
Eb1 2 234.28
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF DC MOTOR

For DC motors, the supply voltage is usually constant and the quantities of common interest are speed, torque etc.
The following are the three important operating characteristics of DC motors.
i) Speed – armature current characteristic
ii) Torque – armature current characteristic
iii) Speed – torque characteristic
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CHARACTERISTICS OF DC SHUNT MOTOR
For constant supply voltage, the filed current is constant. At small values of
armature current the demagnetising effect of armature rection is almost negligible
and therefore the air gap flux is unaffected. For larger values of armature currents,
the demagnetising effect of armature reaction, decreases the air gap flux slightly.
Eb V  Ia R a
Speed, N   Torque, T   I a
 
Speed Vs Armature current characteristic

If armature reaction is neglected, flux remains constant. As load
increases, armature current decreases, back emf decreases due to
IaRa drop and hence speed decreases.
For large values of armature current, due to demagnetising effect
of armature reaction and IaRa drop, both flux (denominator) and
back emf (numerator) decreases. But, with the increase of Ia, the
numerator decrement is more than the denominator decrement
and hence the speed drops only slightly from its no-load speed No.
Torque Vs Armature current characteristic

T   Ia
If the flux is constant (if demagnetizing effect of armature
reaction is neglected), the torque will increase linearly with
armature current.
But for larger Ia, the net flux decreases due to demagnetising
effect of armature reaction and the toque-current characteristic
deviates from the straight line.
Speed Vs Torque characteristic (mechanical characteristic)

T   Ia
 T 
V  Ra
V  Ia R a  KT   V  T 
N    R
    KT  2  a
For smaller T (smaller Ia), armature reaction can be neglected,
flux remains constant. Speed drops from its no-load value with
increase in torque.
For larger T (larger Ia), flux is reduced due to demagnetising
T
effect of armature reaction, increases at a faster rate and the
2
speed drops more rapidly with increase of torque.
A 230V DC shunt motor, takes an armature current of 3.33A at rated voltage and at a no-load speed of 1000rpm.
The resistances of the armature circuit and field circuit are respectively 0.3Ω and 160Ω. The line current at full
load and rated voltage is 40A. Calculate, at full load, the speed and the developed torque in case the armature
reaction weakens the no-load flux by 4%.
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Eb1  V  I a1  R a  230  3.33  0.3  229V

V 230
I sh    1.44 A
Rsh 160
I a 2  I L  I sh  40  1.44  38.56 A
Eb 2  V  I a 2  R a  230  38.56  0.3  218.43V
2  0.961
Eb 2 1 218.43 1
N2    N1    1000  993.6rpm
Eb1 2 229 0.96
60
T  Eb I a 
2 N
60 218.43  38.56  60
T2  Eb 2 I a 2    80.95 Nm
2 N 2 2  993.6
CHARACTERISTICS OF DC SERIES MOTOR

For a series motor, the field current is equal to the armature current.
Eb V  I a ( R a  Rse )
Speed, N  
 
Torque, T   I a
For smaller Ia, flux is proportional to Ia (saturation and demagnetizing effect of
armature reaction neglected) and for larger Ia, flux is almost constant due to
saturation and demagnetizing effect of armature reaction.
Speed Vs Armature current characteristic

If saturation and demagnetising effect of armature reaction is
neglected, flux is directly proportional to armature current.
Eb V  I a ( R a  Rse ) V
N    ( R a  Rse )
 Ia Ia
Ia = 0, when N is infinity and N = 0 when Ia is infinity. Hence,
speed Vs armature current characteristic is a hyperbola.
For larger Ia, flux remains approximately constant due to
saturation and demagnetising effect of armature reaction. Speed –
current characteristic approaches a straight line.
Torque Vs Armature current characteristic

T   Ia  Ia2
Hence, torque Vs armature current characteristic is a parabola.
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Speed Vs torque characteristic

V  I a ( R a  Rse ) V V
N   ( R a  Rse )   ( R a  Rse )
Ia Ia K T
Hence, speed Vs torque characteristic is a hyperbola.
Note: The speed of series motor on no-load or under light load conditions is many times more than the rated speed
of the motor. Such high speeds are unsafe, as the centrifugal forces acting on the armature and commutator can
destroy them. Hence series motors are not recommended for use where there is a possibility of the load becoming
zero. In order to safeguard the motor and personnel, a ‘weak’ shunt field is provided on series motors to ensure a
small value of flux even when the armature current is nearly zero. This way the no-load speed is limited to a safe
maximum speed. Here, this shunt field should be connected so as to aid the series field.
A 230V DC series motor runs at 1000rpm when taking 155A. Its total armature circuit resistance is 0.1Ω. Calculate
the speed of the motor at half the torque. Assume unsaturated magnetic field.
T  Ia2
2
T2  I a 2  1
  
T 1  I a1  2
I 155
I a 2  a1   109.6 A
2 2
E
N b

N 2 Eb 2 1 Eb 2 I a1
   
N1 Eb1 2 Eb1 I a 2
Eb1  V  I a1 ( R a  Rse )  230  155  0.1  214.5V
Eb 2  V  I a 2 ( R a  Rse )  230  109.6  0.1  219.04V
Eb 2 I a1 219.04 155
N2    N1    1000  1444.17 rpm
Eb1 I a 2 214.5 109.6
CHARACTERISTICS OF DC COMPOUND MOTOR
For a compound motor, depending on the series field winding current direction, the flux set-up by the series field
winding will either be in the same direction as that of the shunt field flux or opposite to it. Accordingly, the motor is
classified as either cumulative compound motor or differential compound motor respectively. A differential
compound motor is rarely used in practice.
In a cumulative compound motor, the field produced by the series field winding aids the field produced by the shunt
field winding. Hence, the resultant flux increases and the speed of compound motor falls more rapidly compared to
a shunt motor.
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As the load increases, armature current increases, flux produced by series field winding increases. Since series flux
adds to the shunt flux, resultant flux increases and hence torque increases. The torque of cumulative compound motor
is greater than that of shunt motor for a given armature current.
Cumulative compound motor has a higher starting torque than a shunt motor but a lower starting torque than a series
motor. At light loads, the series field has a very small effect, so the motor behaves approximately as a shunt motor.
As the load gets very large, the series flux becomes quite important and the torque-speed curve begins to look like a
series motor's.
In a differential compound motor, as two fluxes oppose each other, the resultant flux decreases as load increases,
thus the machine runs at a higher speed with an increase in load. This property is dangerous as on full load, the motor
may try to run with dangerously high speed. So the differential compound motor is generally not used in practice.
Note: The exact shape of speed-torque characteristics of compound motor depends on the relative contribution of
series and shunt field windings. If the shunt field winding is more dominant, then the characteristics take the shape
of the shunt motor characteristics. While if the series field winding is more dominant, then the characteristics take
the shape of the series characteristics.
STARTING OF DC MOTOR
NECESSITY OF STARTER
The equation of armature current in a DC shunt motor is written as
V  Eb
Ia 
Ra
Eb  N
At the time of starting, speed is zero (motor is yet to pick up its speed) and hence back emf is zero. Therefore,
V
Ia 
Ra
For a practical DC motor, armature resistance is very low, generally about 0.5Ω. Hence, large current flows through
the armature during starting.
For example, a 10kW, 250V shunt motor may have Ra ≈ 0.2Ω. If switched on directly, its starting armature current
would be 250/0.2 = 1250A whereas the rated armature current is only 40A.
Such heavy inrush of starting current may result in
i) Detrimental sparking at the commuatator
ii) Damage to the armature winding and deterioration of the insulation due to overheating
iii) High starting torque and quick acceleration – which may damage the rotating parts of the motor and the
load and
iv) Large dips in the supply voltage.
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In view of this, the armature current must be limited to a value that can be commutated safely, by inserting a suitable
external resistance in the armature circuit.
As the motor accelerated, back emf Eb is generated and armature current is decreased to a value depending on the
load. As the armature accelerates, the external resistance inserted in the armature circuit should be gradually
decreased to zero.
3-POINT STARTER
The primary function of a starter is to limit the starting current in the armature circuit during starting and accelerating
time of the motor. For shunt and compound motors, two types of starters are used – 3-point starter and 4-point starter.
When wide range of speed control is required, 4-point starter is used. When no speed control is required, either of
starter may be employed.
For a 3-point starter, only 3 terminals (L, A, F) are available from the starter. When the motor is at rest, starter handle
is kept in the OFF potion by a strong spiral spring. Motor is disconnected from the supply. The starting resistance is
connected between contact studs 1,2,3,4,5 and RUN. For starting the motor, the handle is rotated to come in contact
with stud 1. As soon as handle touches stud 1, the shunt field and holding coil (no-volt coil) get connected across the
supply, whereas the armature gets connected in series with the entire starting resistance. Since the current begins to
flow in both the field and armature windings, the motor starts rotating. After the armature has picked up sufficient
speed, the handle is moved to stud 2, thereby cutting out the resistance between studs 1 and 2. Movement of the
handle is continued slowly till the soft iron keeper touches the holding magnet. Now, the handle is in RUN position
and the entire starting resistance is cut out. The holding coil is designed in such a way that it holds the handle in
‘RUN’ position against the force of the spring.
The holding coil has the following functions:
i) In case of power failure, holding coil gets demagnetised and the spiral spring brings the handle back to
OFF position. If the handle fails to return to OFF position during power failure, the motor might get
damaged when the power is restored.
ii) If the shunt field becomes open circuited accidently, holding coil gets demagnetised and the starter
handle is returned to OFF position. (Note: if shunt field current becomes zero during running, flux
becomes zero and speed reaches dangerously high value)
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During running condition, the starting resistance is in series with the field winding. But, since starting resistance is
small in comparison with shunt field resistance, its effect on the shunt field current is negligible.
A protective device, overload release is provided in series with the armature circuit. Overload release is a small
electromagnet. In case the armature current exceeds a preset value due to overload, overload release attracts the
movable soft iron pivoted at one end. As the soft iron is attracted, two terminals of no-volt release get short circuited.
Holding coil gets demagnetised and the starter arm is pulled back to OFF position.
Disadvantages of 3-point starter:
In case of 3-point starter, the field circuit and the holding coil are in series. If speeds above the normal are to be
obtained, the field current must be reduced. At a certain value of reduced field current (therefore, increased motor
speed), the electromagnetic pull of the holding coil may become less than the spring force. In such case, the starter
handle returns to the OFF position and the motor stops. Thus a 3-point starter can not be used where wide range of
speed control, by shunt field control is required. This undesirable feature can be overcome in 4-point starters.
4-POINT STARTER
As the name suggests, four terminals (L, N, F, A) are available from this starter.
Starting
Resistance
+ HC
Field
DC Armature
R
-
The basic difference in the circuit of a 4 point starter as compared to 3 point starter is that the holding coil is removed
from the shunt field circuit and is connected directly across the line with current limiting resistance in series. Hence,
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no voltage coil (holding coil) always produce a force which is strong enough to hold the handle in its ‘RUN’ position,
against the force of the spring, under all the operational conditions. Here, the line current is divided into 3 parts i)
flows through starting resistance and armature which are connected in series ii) flows through field winding and iii)
through the holding coil in series with the protective resistance R.
Any change in the shunt field circuit does not bring about any change in the no voltage coil as the two circuits are
independent of each other.
For starting the motor, the handle is rotated to come in contact with stud 1. As soon as handle touches stud 1, the
holding coil in series with current limiting resistance R, the shunt field and armature in series with starting resistance
get connected across the supply. Since the shunt field is connected across supply and the current begins to flow in
armature windings, the motor starts rotating. After the armature has picked up sufficient speed, the handle is moved
to stud 2, thereby cutting out the resistance between studs 1 and 2. Movement of the handle is continued slowly till
the soft iron keeper touches the holding magnet. Now, the handle is in RUN position and the entire starting resistance
is cut out. The holding coil holds the handle in ‘RUN’ position against the force of the spring.
SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTOR

The term ‘speed control’ stands for intentional speed variation, carried out manually or automatically. Natural speed
change due to load, is not included in the term ‘speed control’.
METHODS OF SPEED CONTROL
The speed of a DC motor is given by
Eb V  Ia R a
N 
 
There are basically three methods of speed control
i) Variation of resistance in the armature circuit
ii) Variation of the field flux and
iii) Variation of armature terminal voltage.
Base speed: It is defined as the speed at which a motor runs at rated armature voltage and fated field current. Base
speed is equal to the rated speed or nameplate speed of the motor.
ARMATURE RESISTANCE CONTROL
In this method, an external resistance R is inserted in series with the armature circuit to obtain speeds below
the base speed only.
SHUNT MOTOR
In a shunt motor, the field flux remains unchanged.
Here, load torque is assumed to be constant. For constant load torque, armature current remains the same (
T   I a ).
Without external resistance,
E
N1  b1  V  I a R a

For
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With external resistance R in armature circuit,

E
N 2  b 2  V  I a ( R a  R)

N 2 V  I a ( Ra  R )

N1 V  I a Ra
SERIES MOTOR
In case of series motor, if wide range of speed control is required, it is usually carried out by this method.
For constant load torque, armature current will be constant.
N 2 V  I a ( Ra  Rse  R)

N1 V  I a ( Ra  Rse )
Disadvantages of armature resistance control are
i) Additional power loss occurs in external resistance.
ii) Speed control is possible only below base speed
iii) For constant torque load, armature current remains the same, so the input to the motor also remains the
same. But the output and hence efficiency decreases in proportion to the fall in speed.
A DC shunt motor runs at 900rpm, on a a220V supply main. Its armature resistance is 0.6Ω and the current taken
is 40A in addition to the field current. What resistance mut be placed in series with the armature in order to reduce
the speed to 500rpm, the armature current remaining same?
Eb1  V  I a R a  220  40  0.6  196V
Eb 2  V  I a ( R a  R )  220  40  (0.6  R )
N 2 Eb 2

N1 Eb1
500 220  40  (0.6  R)

900 196
R = 2.178Ω
A 230V DC series motor takes 45A when delivering its rated output at 1500rpm. Its resistance is 0.3Ω. Find what
resistance must be added to obtain rated torque i) at starting and ii) at 1000rpm.
Eb1  V  I a ( Ra  Rse )  230  45  0.3  216.5V
At starting,
V
I ast 
R a  Rse  R
V 230
R a  Rse  R    5.111
I ast 45
R  5.111  0.3  4.811
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At 1000rpm
Eb 2  V  I a ( R a  Rse  R )  230  40  (0.3  R )
N 2 Eb 2

N1 Eb1
1000 230  45  (0.3  R )

1500 216.5
R = 1.604Ω
FLUX CONTROL (FIELD WEAKENING METHOD)

This method of speed control gives speeds above the base speed only.
SHUNT MOTOR
The flux and hence the speed of a shunt motor can be controlled easily by varying the field resistance. Since Ish is
relatively small, shunt field rheostat has to carry only a small current, which means I2R loss is small. Hence this
method is very efficient.
This method is used to control speed above base speed. There is a limit to the maximum obtainable speed by this
method due to poor commutation at week fluxes. Most common maximum to minimum speed ratio is 6:1.
SERIES MOTOR
The field flux and therefore the speed of a series motor can be varied a) by connecting a resistor, called a diverter, in
parallel with the series field winding; b) by tapping the series field winding and c) by changing the field coil
connections from series to parallel.
a) Diverter field control
When the diverter resistance is varied, the current in the series field winding is changed, and hence, there is a
corresponding change in field flux and the speed.
b) Tapped field control
When the field winding is tapped, the number of series field turns is changed and hence the series flux and speed are
changed.
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c) Series - parallel field control
In this method, the series field winding is divided into two equal halves. They are connected in series or in parallel.
Parallel connection results in higher operating speed of the series motor.
A 220V DC series motor drives a load, the torque of which varies as the square of the speed. R a = 0.2Ω and Rse =
0.2Ω. The motor takes a current of 15A when the speed is 600rpm. Calculate the speed and current when the motor
field winding is shunted by a diverter of the same resistance as that of field winding.
T2 N 2 2

T1 N12
T2 2 I a 2 I se 2 I a 2
 
T1 1 I a1 I se1 I a1
Ia2
But, I se1  I a1 and I se 2 
2
T2 I 2
 a2 2
T1 2 I a1
N2 Ia2

N1 2  I a1
Eb1  V1  I a1 ( Ra  Rse )  220  15  0.4  214V
Eb 2  V  I a 2 ( Ra  Rse )  220  I a 2  0.3
Eb 2 N 2 2 I I I a 22
   a2  a2 
Eb1 N1 1 2 I a1 2 I a1 2 2 I a12
220  0.3I a 2 I a 22

214 2 2 152
220  0.3I a 2  0.336 I a 2 2
0.336 I a 2 2  0.3I a 2  220  0
I a 2  25.15 A
N2 Ia2 25.15
 
N1 2  I a1 2 15
25.15
N 2  600   711rpm
2 15
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ARMATURE VOLTAGE CONTROL

E V  Ia R a
N b 
 
For a constant flux motor, if the armature voltage is varied, the speed changes approximately in the same proportion
as V. Armature voltage can be varied by using i) Ward-Leonard control or b) controlled rectifiers.
WARD LEONARD CONTROL
The Ward-Leonard control system was one of the best solutions to have a very smooth speed control for the full
range of the DC motor.
Here, M is the separately excited DC motor whose speed is to be controlled and G is the separately excited generator
driven by prime-mover. The prime mover can be a DC motor, an AC induction motor or IC engine or steam engine.
DC generator provides a DC voltage to the armature of the DC motor that can be adjusted. As a result, it can vary
from zero to the nominal value of the DC motor, providing a wide range of speed control. The output voltage of a
DC generator is mainly a function of the rotor speed as well as its field current. In the Ward-Leonard system, the
speed is kept almost constant and the field current is adjusted using a voltage divider. By adjusting the field current
of the DC generator, the armature voltage of the DC motor is adjusted, controlling the rotor speed.
SPEED CONTROL WITH CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
Single-phase or three-phase controlled rectifiers using thyristors are used for the speed control of DC motor below
base speed. Fixed AC is converted to variable DC by using controlled rectifier. By varying the firing angle of the
controlled rectifier, armature voltage and hence, the speed can be controlled.
A DC series motor with unsaturated magnetic circuit has a resistance of 1Ω between the terminals. It drives a load
whose torque is proportional to the square of the speed. At 400V, the motor runs at 800rpm and takes 40A. If it is
required to reduce the speed of the motor to 500rpm, what voltage must be applied to the motor and what is the
current drawn by the motor?
T2 N 2 2

T1 N12
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2 I a 2

1 I a1
T2 2 I a 2 I a 2 2 N 2 2
  
T1 1 I a1 I a12 N12
Ia 2 N2

I a1 N1
N 500
I a 2  I a1  2  40   25 A
N1 800
Eb1  V1  I a1 ( Ra  Rse )  400  40  1  360V
Eb 2 N 2 2
 
Eb1 N1 1
N  500 25
Eb 2  Eb1  2  2  360    140.625V
N1 1 800 40
V2  Eb 2  I a 2 ( Ra  Rse )  140.625  25 1  165.625V
BRAKING IN DC MOTORS
Electric braking is used
i) To bring the motor completely to rest in a given amount of time.
ii) To restrict the speed to safe values. This arises normally while lowering loads using a hoist or crane.
Electric braking can be accomplished in any of the following three ways:

i) Regenerative braking
ii) Dynamic or rheostatic braking
iii) Plugging or counter current braking
REGENERATIVE BRAKING
V E
Armature current, I a 
Ra
If armature voltage V is less than induced emf E, armature current and hence torque becomes negative and braking
takes place.
For a source of fixed voltage, regenerative braking is possible only for speeds higher than rated speed. This happens
when a load is moving down a hoist or a train is moving down a slope. With constant terminal voltage, only speed
control (not quick stopping) is possible.
With a variable voltage source, regenerative braking is possible below rated speeds. By reducing the terminal voltage
instantly, the motor can be braked to zero speed.
Regenerative braking is possible only when there are loads connected to the line and they are in need of power more
or equal to the regenerated power.
In series motor, as speed increases, armature current and hence flux decreases. Induced emf cannot be greater than
the applied voltage and hence the current is not reversed. Consequently, regenerative braking is not possible in series
motors.
DYNAMIC BRAKING
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In this braking method, armature terminals are disconnected from the supply and are connected to a braking resistance
RB. When it is disconnected from the supply with field supply remaining on, the dc machine will acts as a generator
and converts kinetic energy stored in its moving parts to electrical energy, which is dissipated as heat in the braking
resistance RB and armature resistance Ra.
E
Ra  RB
For good rate of retardation, RB is decreased in steps so that average armature current and hence braking torque
remains constant.
If a series motor is connected across a resistance, without any change in configuration, then it does not produce
braking torque. As motor’s current tends to reverse, it tries to produce negative flux, which ultimately causes
demagnetization. Dynamic braking is achieved by reversing field connection before the motor is connected to a
braking resistance. Hence, the armature current is reversed but current through the field winding is in the same
direction as in case of motoring, therefore, there is no demagnetization.
PLUGGING
For plugging, the supply voltage of a separately excited DC motor is reversed so that the armature current is reversed.
V  E
Armature current, I a  .
Ra  RB
A braking resistance RB is connected in series with the armature to limit the current.
Since torque is not zero at zero speed, the supply must be disconnected when the speed is close to zero.
For plugging of a series motor, armature alone is reversed.
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TESTING OF DC MOTORS
There is a wide variety of non-loading tests that could be performed on DC machines.
SWINBURNE’S TEST
As this is a no-load test, it can not be performed on a DC series motor. In this method, the machine is run as a shunt
motor on no-load at rated speed and with rated terminal voltage. If Iao and Ish are the no-load armature and field
currents respectively, then the power absorbed by the armature (=VIao) is equal to the no-load rotational loss Ws plus
a small amount of armature circuit loss Iao2Ra.
VI a 0  Ws  I a 0 2 Ra
Stray (rotational) loss, Ws  VI a 0  I a 0 2 Ra
Shunt field copper loss = VI sh
Constant loss, Wc  Ws  VI sh
Machine Running as GENERATOR
Let IL be the load current at which the efficiency is required.
Output, Po  VI L
Shunt field current = Ish (from Swinburne’s Test)
Armature current, I a  I L  I sh
Constant loss,  Wc (from Swinburne’s Test)
Armature copper loss, I a 2 Ra
Input Pi  Po  Wc  I a 2 Ra
Efficiency,   Po 100 %
Pi
Machine Running as MOTOR
Let IL be the line current at which the efficiency is required.
Input, Pi  VI L
Armature current, I a  I L  I sh
Constant loss,  Wc (from Swinburne’s Test)
Armature copper loss, I a 2 Ra
Output Po  Pi  Wc  I a 2 Ra
Pi
OR (if the efficiency of the motor is to be calculated at given power output)
To find efficiency of the motor at an output of Po.
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Stray (rotational) loss, Ws  VI a 0  I a 0 2 Ra (from Swinburne’s Test)
For a motor, input Pi  VI L  V ( I a  I sh )
Output, Po  V ( I a  I sh )  Wc  I a 2 Ra  V ( I a  I sh )  Ws  VI sh  I a 2 Ra
or Po  VI a  I a 2 Ra  Ws
I a 2 Ra  VI a  ( Po  Ws )  0
V  V 2  4 Ra ( Po  Ws )
2 Ra
(V  Vb )  (V  Vb ) 2  4 Ra ( Po  Ws )
(Note: if brush drop Vb is given, I a  )
2 Ra
Line current, I L  I a  I sh
Input, Pi  VI L
Pi
Advantages of Swinburne’s Test
i) Power required to test the machine is less, only the no-load losses of the machine (even for large
machines)
ii) Efficiency can be calculated at any desired load
Disadvantages of Swinburne’s Test

i) Stray load losses cannot be accounted for
ii) As the machine is not subjected to actual load condition, the other performances like whether the
commutation is satisfactory and the temperature rise is within the permitted limit etc can not be studied.
A 400V DC shunt motor takes 5A at no-load. Its armature resistance (including brushes) is 0.5Ω and shunt field
resistance is 200Ω. Estimate the kW output and efficiency when the motor takes 50A on full-load.
V 400
Shunt field current = I sh    2A
Rsh 200
Armature current on no-load, I ao  I L 0  I sh  5  2  3 A
Stray loss, Ws  VI a 0  I a 0 2 Ra  400  3  32  0.5  1195.5W
Constant loss, Wc  Ws  VI sh  1195.5  400  2  1995.5W
Input, Pi  VI L  400  50  20000W
V 400
Shunt field current = I sh    2A
Rsh 200
Armature current, I a  I L  I sh  50  2  48 A
Armature copper loss, I a 2 Ra  482  0.5  1152W
Output Po  Pi  Wc  I a 2 Ra  20000  1995.5  1152  16852.5W
Efficiency,   Po 100  16852.5  84.26%

Pi 20000
A 400V 20kW DC shunt motor takes 2.5A when running light. For an armature resistance of 0.5Ω, field resistance
of 800Ω and brush drop of 2V, find the full-load efficiency.
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V 400
Shunt field current = I sh    0.5 A
Rsh 800
Armature current on no-load, I ao  I L 0  I sh  2.5  0.5  2 A
Stray loss, Ws  VI a 0  I a 0 2 Ra  Vb I a  400  2  22  0.5  2  2  794W
For a motor, input Pi  VI L  V ( I a  I sh )
Output, Po  V ( I a  I sh )  Ws  I a 2 Ra  Vb I a  VI sh
or Po  (V  Vb ) I a  I a 2 Ra  Ws
I a 2 Ra  (V  Vb ) I a  ( Po  Ws )  0
0.5I a 2  398I a  20794  0
Armature current, I a  56.22 A
Line current, I L  I a  I sh  56.22  0.5  56.72 A
Input, Pi  VI L  400  56.72  22688W
Efficiency,   Po 100  20000 100  88.15%

Pi 22688
A 10kW 240V DC shunt motor draws a line current of 5.2A while running at no-load speed of 1200rpm from a
240V DC supply. It has an armature resistance 0.25Ω and a field resistance of 160Ω. Estimate the efficiency of
the motor when it delivers rated load.
HOPKINSON’S TEST (REGENERATIVE TEST)

This test is called regenerative test or back-to-back test which can be carried out simultaneously on two identical DC
machines mechanically and electrically coupled. Full load test can be carried out on identical machines without
wasting their outputs. One of the machines is made to act as a motor while the other as a generator. The mechanical
output obtained from the motor drives the generator whose electrical output supplies the greater part of input to the
motor. The motor is connected to the supply mains only to compensate for the losses. In case of ideal machines where
there is no losses, the motor-generator set will run without any power drawn from the supply. But due to losses, the
generator output will not be sufficient to drive the motor. Hence, motor draws power from the supply to account for
the losses.
 Start machine 1 as a shunt motor by using a starter and adjust the speed upto rated speed with switch S open.
Both the machines run at same speed as they are mechanically coupled.
 Adjust the field current If2 of machine II till the voltmeter across switch S reads zero (both generated emf
and supply voltage becomes equal in magnitude and polarity). Now, switch S is closed.
 Magnitude of Ia2 is adjusted to any current (eg. Full-load current) by varying If2. At the same time, speed is
also kept at rated value by varying If1.
 Machine with lower value of field current runs as a motor because its counter emf is less than the generated
emf of the other machine. If If2 is greater than If1, machine II acts as generator.
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 Current through the motor is Ia1 = Ia2 + Io. Power output of generator along with power drawn from supply to
overcome the losses are fed to the motor.
Generator armature current = Ia2

Motor armature current = Ia1= Ia2 + Io
Power input from supply = VIo
Armature copper loss of the motor = Ia12Ra
Armature copper loss of the generator = Ia22Ra
VI o  I a12 Ra  I a 2 2 Ra
Rotational (Stray) loss/machine = Ws 
2
MACHINE AS GENERATOR
Generator Output, Po  VI a 2 (connected as separately excited DC generator)
Generator input, Pi  Po  I a 2 2 Ra  Ws  VI f 2
Po
Efficiency,    100%
Pi
MACHINE AS MOTOR
Motor input, Pi  V ( I a1  I f 1 ) (connected as shunt motor)
Motor output, Po  Pi  I a12 Ra  Ws  VI f 1
Po
Efficiency,    100%
Pi
Advantages of Hopkinson’s Test
The merits of this test are…
1. Large machines can be tested at the rated load by drawing less amount of power from the supply mains, the
power being equal to the losses of the two machines.
2. Temperature rise and commutation can be studied because this test is done under full load condition.
3. Change in iron loss due to flux distortion can be taken into account due to the advantage of its full load
condition.
4. Efficiency at different loads can be determined.
Disadvantages of Hopkinson’s Test
The demerits of this test are
1. Two identical machines are needed for conducting the test.
2. Both machines cannot be loaded equally all the time.
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3. It is not possible to get separate iron losses for the two machines though they are different because of their
excitations.
Two identical DC shunt machines when test by Hopkinson’s method, gave the following data:
Line voltage 230V, line current excluding both the field currents 30A, motor armature current 230A, field currents
5A and 4A.
If the armature resistance of each machine (including brushes) is 0.025Ω, calculate efficiency of both the machines.
Line current excluding field currents = I o  30 A

Motor armature current, I a1  230 A
Generator armature current, I a 2  230  30  200 A
VI o  I a12 Ra  I a 2 2 Ra 230  30  2302  0.025  2002  0.025
Rotational (Stray) loss/machine = Ws    2288.75W
2 2
Generator Output, Po  VI a 2  230  200  46000W (connected as separately excited DC generator)
Generator input, Pi  Po  I a 2 2 Ra  Ws  VI f 2  46000  200 2  0.025  2288.75  230  5  50438.75W
Po 46000
Efficiency,    100   100  91.2%
Pi 50438.75
MACHINE AS MOTOR
Motor input, Pi  V ( I a1  I f 1 )  230  (230  4)  53820W (connected as shunt motor)
Motor output, Po  Pi  I a12 Ra  Ws  VI f 1  53820  230 2  0.025  2288.75  230  4  49288.75W
Po 49288.75
Efficiency,    100   100  91.58%
Pi 53820
Two identical DC machines when tested by Hopkinson’s method gave the following test results:
Field current are 2.5A and 2A. Line voltage is 220V. Line current including both the field currents is 10A. Motor
armature current is 73A. The armature resistance of each machine is 0.05Ω. Calculate the efficiency of both the
machines.
Line current including field currents = 10A

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Line current excluding field currents = I o  5.5 A

Motor armature current, I a1  73 A
Generator armature current, I a 2  73  5.5  67.5 A
VI o  I a12 Ra  I a 2 2 Ra 220  5.5  732  0.05  67.52  0.05
Rotational (Stray) loss/machine = Ws    357.87W
2 2
Generator Output, Po  VI a 2  220  67.5  14850W
Generator input, Pi  Po  I a 2 2 Ra  Ws  VI f 2  14850  67.52  0.05  357.87  220  2.5  15985.7W
Po 14850
Efficiency,    100   100  92.9%
Pi 15985.7
MACHINE AS MOTOR
Motor input, Pi  V ( I a1  I f 1 )  220  (73  2)  16500W
Motor output, Po  Pi  I a12 Ra  Ws  VI f 1  16500  732  0.05  357.87  220  2  15435.7W
Po 15435.7
Efficiency,    100   100  93.55%
Pi 16500
The results of Hopkinson’s test on two similar DC machines are as follows:
Line voltage 220V. Motor armature current 23A. Generator armature current 20A. Generator field current 0.4A.
Motor field current 0.3A. Armature resistance of each machine 0.5Ω. Calculate the efficiency of each machine.
RETARDATION TEST
Objective of this test is i) to separate the rotational losses (Ws) into its components, iron losses and mechanical losses
and ii) to find the value of the moment of inertia J of the moving parts of the DC machine.
This test is based on the fundamental equation describing machine dynamics as

1
Kinetic Energy = J  2 where J is the moment of inertia in Kg-m2 and ω is the angular velocity at which the rotating
2
parts are moving,   2 N rad/sec.
60
d 1 d 2 dN dN
Power due to kinetic energy, W = ( J 2 )  J  ( )2 JN  0.011JN
dt 2 dt 60 dt dt
Retardation test involves 3 steps
Step 1: While running the motor slightly beyond its rated speed, switch off the dc supply. Armature slows down and
its kinetic energy is utilized to meet the mechanical losses in the machine. Note the time t1 for a decrease in speed of
dN.
dN
Wm  0.011JN ---------- (1)
t1
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Step 2:
While running the motor slightly beyond its rated speed, switch off the armature supply keeping the field winding
excited. Armature slows down and its kinetic energy is used to overcome the rotational losses W s (= Wi+Wm). Note
the time t2 for a decrease in speed of dN.
dN
Ws  0.011JN ---------- (2)
t2
Step 3: While running the motor slightly beyond its rated speed, connect the armature alone to braking resistance R b.
Armature slows down due to dynamic braking and its kinetic energy is utilized to meet the rotational losses and the
additional power loss in (Ra + Rb). Note the time t3 for a decrease in speed of dN. Also note the value of current at
the beginning and end of speed change dN. Let Ib be the mean value of current through Rb.
WR  Ib 2 ( Ra  Rb )
dN
Ws  WR  0.011JN ---------- (3)
t3
WR  t 2 t3 
(3) – (2) → J   
0.011NdN  t2  t3 
dN
(1) → Mechanical loss, Wm  0.011JN
t1
t1  t2
(2) – (1) → Iron loss, Wi  0.011JNdN
t1t2
A retardation test on a 1400rpm DC shunt motor gave the following results: i) with field unexcited, the speed
dropped from 1425 to 1375rpm in 80s; ii) with the field normally excited, the same speed drop occurred in 25s iii)
with an average braking power of 1kW supplied by the armature, the same speed drop occurred in 20s. Determine
the moment of inertia, iron losses and mechanical losses at 1400rpm.
N = 1400rpm
dN = 1425 – 1375 = 50rpm
t1 = 80s
t2 = 25s
t3 = 20s
WR = 1000W
WR  t 2t3  1000  25  20  2
J
0.011NdN

t  t

0.011  1400  50  25  20   129.87 Kgm
 2 3
dN 50
Mechanical loss, Wm  0.011JN  0.011129.87 1400   1250W
t1 80
t1  t2 80  25
Iron loss, Wi  0.011JNdN  0.011 129.87 1400  50   2750W
t1t2 80  25
A retardation test is made on a separate excited DC machine as a motor. The induced voltage falls from 240V to
225V in 25 seconds on opening the armature circuit and 6 seconds on suddenly changing the armature connection
from supply to a load resistance taking 10A (average). Find the rotational losses.
240  225
WR  Vav  I av   10  2325W
2
 tt   25  6 
0.011JNdN   2 3  WR    2325  18355.26
 t 2  t3   25  6 
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dN 18355.26
Rotational (Stray) loss, Ws  0.011JN   734.2W
t2 25

Question CO Mark
1. A 230V DC shunt motor with constant field drives a log whose torque is proportional to 3 2
the speed. When running at 750rpm it takes 30A. Find the speed at which it will run if a
10Ω resistance is connected in series with its armature. The resistance of armature may be
neglected.
Ans: Ia2 = 13.02A, N2 = 325.5rpm
2. A 440V shunt motor takes 105A as armature current from the supply and runs at 1000rpm. 3 2
The armature resistance is 0.15Ω. If the total torque developed is unchanged, calculate the
speed and armature current if the magnetic field is reduced to 70% of the initial value.
Ans: Ia2 = 150A, Eb2 = 417.5V, N2 = 1406rpm
3. A series motor takes 20A at 400V and runs at 250rpm. The armature resistance is 0.6Ω 3 2
and field resistance 0.4Ω. The torque required by the device varies as the square of the
speed. Find the applied voltage and current to run the device at 350rpm.
Ans: I2 = 28A, V2 = 772.8V
4. A 230V DC shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.3Ω. Calculate the resistance to 3 2
be connected in series with the armature to limit the armature current to 75A at starting.
Ans: 2.7667Ω
5. A 230V 4-pole DC shunt motor draws 36A from mains when delivering 10HP. If armature 3 2
and field circuit resistances are 0.1Ω and 300Ω respectively, find the motor current when
load is 5HP. Neglect armature reaction effect.
Ans: Rotational loss = 624.5W, Ia = 18.86A, IL = 19.627A
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Module 4 Single phase transformers –constructional details, principle of operation, EMF equation, ideal
transformer, dot convention, magnetising current, transformation ratio, phasor diagram, operation on no load and
on load, equivalent circuit, percentage and per unit impedance, voltage regulation. Transformer losses and
efficiency, condition for maximum efficiency, kVA rating. Testing of transformers– polarity test, open circuit
test, short circuit test, Sumpner's test – separation of losses, all day efficiency. Parallel operation of single-phase
transformers– numerical problems
TRANSFORMERS
The transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit to another electrical circuit
through the medium of magnetic field without a change in the frequency. The electric circuit which received energy
from the supply mains is called primary winding and the other circuit which delivers electric energy to the load is
called the secondary. The primary and secondary windings of a transformer are not connected electrically, but are
coupled magnetically.
If the secondary winding has more turns than the primary winding, then the secondary voltage is higher than the
primary voltage and the transformer is called a step-up transformer. If the secondary winding has less turns than the
primary winding, then the secondary voltage is lower than the primary voltage and the transformer is called a step-
down transformer.
Generating voltage is limited to 11 to 33kV due to insulation considerations. By means of transformers, this voltage
is stepped up to higher transmission voltage 220kV, 440kV or even higher in order to reduce the transmission losses.
Transformers are installed to step-down the voltage suitable for its utilisation of motors and other loads.
CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS
There are two general types of transformers, the core type and the shell type. These two types differ from each other
by the manner in which the windings are wound around the magnetic core.
The magnetic core is a stack of thin silicon-steel laminations about 0.35mm thick for 50Hz transformers. In order to
reduce the eddy current losses, these laminations are insulated from one another by thin layers of varnish. For
reducing the core losses, nearly all transformers have their magnetic core made from cold-rolled grain-oriented sheet-
steel (CRGO). This material has low core loss and high permeability.
In the core-type, the windings surround a considerable part of steel core. In the shell type, the steel core surrounds a
major part of the windings. For a given output and voltage rating, core-type transformer requires less iron but more
conductor material as compared to a shell-type transformer. The vertical portions are called limbs or legs and the top
and bottom portions are called the yoke. In single phase transformers, core-type has two-legged core whereas shell-
type has three-legged core.
In iron-core transformers, most of the flux is confined to high permeability core. But there is some flux that leaks
through the core legs and non-magnetic material surrounding the core. This flux, called leakage flux, links only one
winding and not the other. To reduce the leakage flux, in the core-type transformer, half of the LV winding is placed
over one leg and other half over the second leg. For the HV winding also, half of the winding is over one leg and
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other half over the second leg. LV winding is placed adjacent to the steel core and HV winding outside, in order to
minimise the amount of insulation required.
In the shell-type transformer, the LV and HV windings are wound over the central limb and interleaved as shown in
figure.
Shell-type transformers are preferred for low-voltage low-power levels whereas core-type construction is used for
high voltage, high power transformers.
In core-type transformer, the flux has a single path around the legs or yokes. In the shell-type transformer, the flux
in the central limb divides equally and returns through the outer two legs.
Usually concentric coils are used for core-type transformers and interleaved coils for shell-type transformers.
DOT CONVENTION
The secondary voltage may be in-phase or out-of-phase with the primary voltage depending on the direction
(clockwise or anticlockwise) in which they are wound around the core.
If the dots are at the top of each winding, the two voltages will be in phase. If dot in the primary winding is at the top
and dot in the secondary winding is at the bottom, the two voltages will be out-of-phase.
IDEAL TRANSFORMER
i) Primary and secondary windings have no resistance (hence no copper loss).
ii) All the flux produced by the primary links the secondary winding i.e., there is no leakage flux
iii) Permeability of the core is infinitely large. In other words, to establish flux in the core vanishingly small
(or zero) current is required
iv) Core loss (eddy current and hysteresis losses) are negligible
EMF EQUATION
Let v  Vm cos t be the voltage applied to the primary winding of an ideal transformer.
Flux set up by it will be lagging the applied voltage by 90˚.
  m sin t
d d sin  t 
Emf induced in the primary winding, e   N1   N1 m   N1m cos t  N1m sin(t  )
dt dt 2
Maximum value of emf induced in primary winding, Em  N1m  2 fN1m
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Em 2 fN1m
RMS value of emf induced in primary winding, E1    4.44 fN1m
2 2
Similarly,
RMS value of emf induced in secondary winding, E2  4.44 fN 2m
Hence,
E2 N 2
  K = Transformation ratio
E1 N 2
For step-down transformer, K < 1 and for step-up transformer, K > 1.
For ideal transformer, V1  E1 and E2  V2 .
TRANSFORMER ON NO-LOAD WITH CORE LOSS BUT NOT HAVING WINDING RESISTANCE &
LEAKAGE REACTANCE
Consider a transformer with core loss only but no winding resistance (no copper loss) and leakage reactance. The
current drawn from the supply on no-load will have two components – magnetising current Im (which produces the
flux) and core loss current Ic (which produces the core loss). No-load current Io lags behind the supply voltage V by
an angle  less than 90˚. Its components, magnetising current Im lags behind the supply voltage V by angle 90˚ and
the core loss current Ic is in phase with the supply voltage V.
Taking V as reference ( V 0 )
I o  I c  j Im
I c  I o cos 
I m  I o sin 
I o  I o (cos   j sin  )  I o    
TRANSFORMER ON LOAD WITH CORE LOSS BUT NOT HAVING WINDING RESISTANCE & LEAKAGE
REACTANCE
Now, we will examine the behaviour of the transformer on load condition. Assume the transformer has core loss
only; no winding resistance and leakage reactance. When the secondary winding is connected to a load, load current
I2 starts to flow through load and secondary winding. An mmf N2I2 is produced in the secondary winding which
produces flux 2. This flux 2 will oppose the main magnetising flux and the main flux is weakened for a moment.
Hence, induced emf in the primary is decreased for a moment and falls below supply voltage V. Hence, an extra
current I2’ is drawn from the supply and produces extra flux 2’ in the core which neutralizes the secondary flux 2.
Hence main magnetising flux in the core remains the same irrespective of the load. Here, the total current drawn from
the supply can be divided into two – i) no-load current Io (to produced flux and core-loss) and ii) load component of
primary current I2’ (to neutralize the demagnetising effect of secondary current).
Note: Applied voltage V1 is equal and opposite to E1.
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PHASOR DIAGRAM & EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A PRACTICAL TRANSFORMER

As transformer is an electromagnetic device it can be represented by an equivalent circuit consisting of R and L in
addition to voltage and current.
R1 = primary winding resistance in Ω
R2 = secondary winding resistance in Ω
X1 = primary leakage reactance in Ω
X2 = secondary leakage reactance in Ω
Rc = core loss resistance in Ω
Xm = magnetising reactance in Ω
Exact equivalent circuit is shown in figure below.
The load may be pure resistive (unity power factor), inductive (lagging power factor) or capacitive (leading power
factor).
Depending on the load power factor, phasor diagrams can be drawn as shown below.
Phasor diagrams taking V2 as reference are shown below. (V2, I2, V1, I1, 1, 2 can be measured for a transformer)
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Exact equivalent circuit referred to primary is shown below.
When primary quantities are shifted to secondary or secondary quantities are shifted to primary, per unit drop in
voltage should be same.
I 2 ' R2 ' I 2 R2

E1 E2
I 2 E1 R N2
R2 '  R2  22 where  K  transformation ratio
I 2 ' E2 K N1
Similarly,
I2 ' X 2 ' I2 X 2

E1 E2
I 2 E1 X
X2 '  X 2  22
I 2 ' E2 K
Approximate equivalent circuit referred to primary is shown below.
Ro1  R1  R2 '
X o1  X 1  X 2 ' Note: ‘o’ stands for overall
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A 2300/230V 50Hz 1-phase transformer has the following parameters:

Primary winding (HV side): R1 = 0.3Ω, X1 = 0.7Ω
Secondary winding (LV side): R2 = 0.00295Ω, X2 = 0.00685Ω
Rc and Xm referred to primary are 4000Ω and 1000Ω.
Draw the approximate equivalent circuit referred to primary and hence find the current drawn from the supply if
the HV side is connected to 2300V supply and the LV side is connected to a load impedance of (0.4+j0.3)Ω.
E2 230
K   0.1
E1 2300
R 0.00295
R2 '  22   0.295
K 0.12
X 0.00685
X 2 '  22   0.685
K 0.12
Ro1  R1  R2 '  0.3  0.295  0.595
X o1  X 1  X 2 '  0.7  0.685  1.385
Z L  RL  jX L  0.4  j 0.3
0.4 0.3
Z L '  RL ' jX L '  2  j 2   40  j 30
0.1 0.1
V  0  23000
I 2    44.82  37.7 A
Ro1  jX o1  RL ' jX L ' 40.595  j31.385
V 0 V 0 23000 23000
I0      2.37  75.96 A
Rc jX m 4000 j1000
I1  I 0  I 2  2.37  75.96  44.82  37.7  46.7  39.5 A
VOLTAGE REGULATION
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On no-load, the secondary terminal voltage is equal to rated secondary voltage of the transformer if the no-load
current (only 2 to 5% of the rated current) is neglected. But, as the load on the transformer increases, secondary
current I2 increases and the magnitude of the secondary voltage increases or decreases depending on the power factor
of the load from its no-load value.
It is defined as the change in magnitude of the secondary terminal voltage, expressed as a percentage of the secondary
rated voltage, when load at a given power factor is reduced to zero, with primary applied voltage held constant.
If V2 = secondary terminal voltage at any load, and E2 = secondary terminal voltage on no load, then at a
given power factor and specified load, the voltage regulation is given by
E2  V2
Voltage regulation = 100
Secondary rated voltage
(Note: As per IS, the secondary rated voltage of a transformer is equal to the secondary terminal voltage at no load,
i.e. E2)
E V
Voltage regulation = 2 2 100
E2
The change in secondary terminal voltage with load current is due to the primary and secondary leakage impedances
of the transformer. The magnitude of this change depends on the load power factor, load current, total resistance and
total leakage reactance of the transformer.
A transformer should have a small value of voltage regulation (i.e. good voltage regulation) so that the terminal
voltage at the consumer’s premises does not vary widely as the load changes.
E2  OC  OA  AB  BC  V2  I 2 Ro 2 cos 2  I 2 X o 2 sin 2
Voltage drop in the secondary terminal voltage, E2  V2  I 2 ( Ro 2 cos 2  X o 2 sin 2 ) for lagging p.f.
Voltage drop in the secondary terminal voltage, E2  V2  I 2 ( Ro 2 cos 2  X o 2 sin 2 ) for leading p.f.
I 2 ( Ro 2 cos 2  X o 2 sin 2 )
%VR   100 + sign for lag & - sign for lead
E2
E2 = Rated secondary voltage on no-load
A 20kVA, 2500/500V 50Hz 1-phase transformer has the following parameters:
Primary winding (HV side): R1 = 8Ω, X1 = 17Ω
Secondary winding (LV side): R2 = 0.3Ω, X2 = 0.7Ω
Find the voltage regulation and the secondary terminal voltage at full-load for a power factor of a) 0.8 lagging and
b) 0.8 leading. The primary voltage is held constant at 2500V.
E2 500
K   0.2
E1 2500
Ro 2  R2  K 2 R1  0.3  0.22  8  0.62
X o 2  X 2  K 2 X 1  0.7  0.22 17  1.38
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20 1000
Full load current, I 2   40 A
500
For power factor = 0.8 lag,
I 2 ( Ro 2 cos 2  X o 2 sin 2 ) 40(0.62  0.8  1.38  0.6)
%VR   100  100  10.59% for p.f. = 0.8 lag
E2 500
E2  V2
 0.1059
E2
V2  (1  0.1059)  500  447.04V
For power factor = 0.8 lead,
I 2 ( Ro 2 cos 2  X o 2 sin 2 ) 40(0.62  0.8  1.38  0.6)
%VR   100  100  2.656% for p.f. = 0.8 lead
E2 500
E2  V2
 0.02656
E2
V2  (1  0.02656)  500  513.28V
A 6600/440V, 1-phase transformer has an equivalent resistance of 0.02p.u. and an equivalent reactance of 0.05p.u.
Find the full-load voltage regulation at 0.8 p.f. lag, if the primary voltage is 6600V. Find also the secondary
terminal voltage at full load.
I 2 Ro 2 I1 Ro1
Per unit resistance =   0.02
E2 E1
I 2 X o 2 I1 X o1
Per unit reactance =   0.05
E2 E1
I 2 Ro 2 cos 2 I 2 X o 2 sin 2
%VR    100  (0.02  0.8  0.05  0.6) 100  4.6%
E2 E2
E2  V2
 0.046
E2
V2  (1  0.046)  440  419.76V
Note: Regulation may be positive, zero or negative.
LOSSES IN TRANSFORMER
There are mainly two kinds of losses in a transformer, namely i) core loss and ii) ohmic loss.
a) Core loss
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Core loss occurring in the transformer core consists of two components, hysteresis loss and eddy current loss.
When the magnetic material is subjected to reversal of magnetic flux, it causes a continuous reversal of molecular
magnets. This effect consumes some electric power which is further dissipated in the form of heat as loss. This loss
is known as hysteresis loss.
1.6
Hysteresis loss = K h fBm
where Kh = proportionality constant,
Bm = maximum flux density in the core
f = frequency of the alternating flux
Hysteresis loss can be minimized by using silicon steel material for the construction of core.
Since flux in the core of a transformer is alternating, it links with the magnetic material of the core itself also. This
induces an emf in the core and circulates eddy currents. Power is required to maintain these eddy currents. This power
is dissipated in the form of heat and is known as eddy current loss.
Eddy current loss = K e f 2 Bm 2
where Ke = proportionality constant,
Eddy current loss can be minimized by making the core of thin laminations.
The flux set up in the core of the transformer remains constant from no-load to full load. Hence, iron loss is
independent of the load and is known as constant losses.
b) Copper loss
Copper losses occur in both the primary and secondary windings due to their ohmic resistance. If I1, I2 are the primary
and secondary currents and R1, R2 are the primary and secondary resistances, respectively,
Total Cu loss  I12 R1  I 2 2 R2  I12 Ro1  I 2 2 Ro 2
The currents in the primary and secondary winding vary according to the load; therefore, these losses vary according
to the load and are known as variable loss.
EFFICIENCY OF TRANSFORMER
Transformer efficiency is given by
output power output power
 
input power output power + core loss + Cu loss
V2 I 2 cos 2

V2 I 2 cos 2  Wi  I 2 2 Ro 2
where V2 = secondary terminal voltage
I2 = secondary current
cos 2 = load power factor
Wi = iron loss (or core loss)
If I2FL is the full load current, full load Cu loss = I2FL2Ro2
If S is full load VA and x is the load factor, then
xS cos 2

xS cos 2  Wi  x 2  FL Cu Loss
CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY

V2 I 2 cos 2

V2 I 2 cos 2  Wi  I 2 2 Ro 2
d
For maximum efficiency, 0
dI 2
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(V2 I 2 cos 2  Wi  I 2 2 Ro 2 )V2 cos 2  V2 I 2 cos 2 (V2 cos 2  2 I 2 Ro 2 )  0

(V2 I 2 cos 2  Wi  I 2 2 Ro 2 )  I 2 (V2 cos 2  2 I 2 Ro 2 )  0
Wi  I 2 2 Ro 2  2 I 2 2 Ro 2  0
I 2 2 Ro 2  Wi
Cu loss = Core loss
Efficiency of a transformer is maximum when copper (or variable) loss is equal to core (or constant) loss.
Also, the value of output current I2 at which the efficiency of the transformer will be maximum is given by;
Wi
I2 
Ro 2
Again,
Wi
I 2  I 2 FL
I 2 FL 2 Ro 2
Wi
V2 I 2  V2 I 2 FL
I 2 FL 2 Ro 2
Core loss
Output kVA Corresponding to maximum efficiency  Full load kVA×
FL Cu loss
Core loss
Load factor at maximum efficiency, x 
FL Cu loss
A 25kVA, 3300/230V, 50Hz 1-phase transformer has iron loss of 300W and copper loss of 400W on full-load. (a)
Find the efficiency of the transformer at half load at 0.8 power factor lagging. (b) At what load will the efficiency
be maximum? Also, find the maximum efficiency.
1
(a) Load factor x 
2
1
Output =  25000  0.8  10000W
2
Full load Cu loss = 400W
2 2
1 1
Cu loss at half load =  x   FL Cu loss     400  100W    400  100W
2
2 2
Total losses = Wi + Wcu = 300 + 100 = 400W
Input = 10000 + 400 = 10400W
output 10000
Efficiency,   100  100  96.3%
input 10400
(b) Maximum efficiency
Core loss 300

Load factor at maximum efficiency, x    0.866
FL Cu loss 400
Output at maximum efficiency = 0.866  25000  0.8  17320W
Cu loss at maximum efficiency =  x   FL Cu loss   0.866   400  300W
2 2
Total losses = Wi + Wcu = 300 + 300 = 600W

Input = 17320 + 600 = 17920W
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output 17320
Efficiency,   100   100  96.65%
input 17920
The efficiency of a 200kVA, 1-phase transformer is 98.75% when delivering full-load at 0.8 power factor and 99%
at 80% of full-load at 0.9 power factor. Calculate i) the iron loss and ii) the full-load copper loss.
Ans:- Wi = 442W, FL Cu loss = 1583W
A 440/110V 1-phase transformer has a primary resistance of 0.34Ω and secondary resistance of 0.02Ω. Its iron
loss at normal voltage and frequency is 50W. Calculate the secondary current at which maximum efficiency occurs
and the value of maximum efficiency at 0.8 p.f. leading.
110
K  0.25
440
Ro 2  R2  R1 '  R2  K 2 R1  0.02  0.252  0.34  0.04125
Wi 50
Secondary current at maximum efficiency, I 2    34.82 A
Ro 2 0.04125
Output at maximum efficiency = V2 I 2 Cos2  110  34.82  0.8  3064.16W
Losses at maximum efficiency = 2 x Wi = 100W
output 3064.16
Efficiency,    100   100  96.84%
input 3064.16  100
TESTING OF TRANSFORMERS
OPEN CIRCUIT & SHORT CIRCUIT TESTS
Open Circuit (OC) Test: Open circuit test is conducted i) to determine the core loss and ii) to determine the
equivalent circuit parameters Rc and Xm.
In this test, the supply is given to the low-voltage side and the high-voltage side is kept open circuited. A voltmeter,
ammeter and a wattmeter are connected in the low voltage side which is supplied at rated voltage and frequency.
Since the secondary is open-circuited, a very small current Io (no load current) flows in the primary. The power loss
is due to core loss and a very small I2R loss in the primary. There is no I2R loss in the secondary since it is open and
I2 = 0. Since the no-load current is very small (usually 2 to 5% of the full load current), the I2R loss in the primary
winding can be neglected. Hence the wattmeter reads core loss at rated voltage. This core loss is same at all loads.
Wo  Vo I o cos o
Wo
No-load power factor = Coso 
Vo I o
I c  I o cos o I m  I o sin o
Vo Vo
Rc  Xm 
Ic Im
Equivalent circuit during open circuit test:
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Short Circuit (SC) Test: In short circuit test, usually the low-voltage side is short-circuited by a thick conductor.
An ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter are connected on the high-voltage side. The reasons for short-circuiting the
LV side and taking measurements on the HV side are as follows:
1) The rated current on HV side is lower than that on LV side. This current can be easily measured with the
available laboratory ammeters.
2) Since the applied voltage is less than 5% of the rated voltage of the winding, greater accuracy in the reading
of the voltmeter is possible when the HV side is used as the primary.
The HV winding is supplied with a reduced voltage so that full-load current (not compulsory) flows in that winding.
Since the applied voltage is low (5 to 10% of rated voltage), flux is low and hence core loss (proportional to flux 2) is
small and can be neglected. Since full-load current flows in HV winding, the wattmeter reads full-load copper loss.
Secondary voltage V2 is zero because of short circuit. Whole of the primary voltage is used in supplying the voltage
drop in the total impedance Zo1 referred to the primary.
Wsc = Full-load copper loss
Wsc  I sc 2 Ro 2
Vsc
Zo2 
I sc
X o 2  Z o 2 2  Ro 2 2
Equivalent circuit during short circuit test:
A 220/440V 1-phase transformer has the following test results:

OC Test: 220V, 1A, 70W on LV side
SC Test: 20V, 12A, 100W on HV side
Determine the equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to i) LV side and ii) HV side.
K=2
Wo 70
coso    0.318
Vo I o 220 1
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Vo 220
Rc    691.82 Rc '  K 2  Rc  2767.28
I o cos o 1 0.318
Vo 220
Xm    232.07 X m '  K 2  X m  928.28
I o sin o 1 0.948
Wsc 100
Ro 2    0.694
I sc 2 122
Vsc 20
Zo2    1.667
I sc 12
X o 2  Z o 2 2  Ro 2 2  1.667 2  0.694 2  1.516
Ro 2 0.694
Ro1   2  0.174
K2 2
X 1.667
X o1  o22  2  0.379
K 2
A 10kVA 2500/250V 1-phase transformer has the following test results:

OC Test: 250V, 0.8A, 50W on LV side
SC Test: 60V, 3A, 45W on HV side
i) Calculate efficiency at ½ full load at 0.8p.f.
ii) Calculate the load (kVA output) at which maximum efficiency occurs and also the value of maximum
efficiency at 0.8 p.f.
iii) Compute the voltage regulation and the secondary terminal voltage under rated load at power factors
of i) 0.8 lagging and ii) 0.8 leading
Core loss = Wi = 50W

FL current on HV side = 10000/2500 = 4A
Cu loss at 3A = 45W
2
4
Full load Cu loss =    45  80W
3
2
1
Cu loss at ½ full-load =    80  20W
2
output 5000  0.8
Efficiency at ½ full-load =   100  100  98.28%
input 5000  0.8  50  20
Core loss 50
Load kVA at maximum efficiency =  Full load kVA×  10000   7905.7W
FL Cu loss 80
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7905.7  0.8
Maximum efficiency =  100  98.44%
7905.7  0.8  50  50
From SC test,
Wsc 45
Ro 2    5
I sc 2 32
Vsc 60
Zo2    20
I sc 3
X o 2  Z o 2 2  Ro 2 2  20 2  52  19.365
% Voltage regulation at 0.8 p.f. lag
I 2 Ro 2 cos 2 I 2 X o 2 sin 2 4  5  0.8 4 19.365  0.6
%VR    100    100  2.5%
E2 E2 2500 2500
E2  V2
 0.025
E2
V2  (1  0.025)  2500  2437.5V
% Voltage regulation at 0.8 p.f. lead
I 2 Ro 2 cos 2 I 2 X o 2 sin 2 4  5  0.8 4 19.365  0.6
%VR    100    100  1.22%
E2 E2 2500 2500
E2  V2
 0.0122
E2
V2  (1  0.0122)  2500  2530.5V
SUMPNER’S TEST (BACK-TO-BACK TEST)

The Sumpner’s test on single phase transformers requires two identical transformers. It is equivalent to conducting
the open circuit and short circuit test simultaneously. The primary windings are connected in parallel and supplied
rated voltage and rated frequency.
The secondaries are connected in series with their polarities in phase opposition, which can be checked by a voltmeter
Vp. In order to check that the secondaries are connected in series opposition, any two terminals are joined together
and the voltage is measured between the remaining terminals. If the voltmeter reads zero, the two secondaries are in
series opposition. If the voltmeter reads a value approximately equal to twice the rated secondary voltage either
transformer, then the secondaries are acting in the same direction.
If the primary circuit is now closed, the total voltage across the two secondaries in series will be zero. There will be
no current in the secondary windings. The transformers will behave as if their secondary windings are open circuited.
Hence, the reading of wattmeter W1 gives the iron losses of both the transformers.
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A small voltage is injected in the secondary circuit using an autotransformer. The magnitude of the injected voltage
is adjusted till the ammeter reads full-load secondary current. The secondary current produces full-load current to
flow through the primary windings. This current will follow a circulatory path through the main bus bars and the
wattmeter reading W1 will not be affected by this current. The wattmeter reading W2 gives the full load copper losses
of the two transformers.
V1, I1, W1 be the readings on primary side.
I1
Io  ; Vo  V1
2
W
Wo  1  Vo I o cos o
2
Wo
cos o 
Vo I o
I c  I o cos o I m  I o sin o
Vo Vo
Rc  Xm 
Ic Im
V2, I2, W2 be the readings on secondary side.
W2
Wsc 
2
V
Vsc  2
2
I sc  I 2
Wsc  I sc 2 Ro 2
Vsc
Zo 2 
I sc
X o 2  Z o 2 2  Ro 2 2
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Advantages of Sumpner’s Test:

1. Power expenditure for performing the test is very less (equal to losses of both the machines)
2. Big capacity transformers can be tested.
3. Core loss, copper loss, efficiency, voltage regulation, temperature rise can be determined.
Disadvantage of Sumpner’s Test:
1. Two identical transformers are required.
Two similar 250/500V, 6kVA transformers are being tested by Sumpner’s test and gave the following test results:
On parallel connected LV side: 250V, 3A, 160W
On series connected HV side: 40V, 12A, 200W on HV side
Determine the equivalent circuit parameters of the transformer referred to LV side.
I1
Io   1.5 A ; Vo  250V
2
W
Wo  1  80W
2
Wo
cos o   0.213
Vo I o
Vo Vo
Rc   782.47 Xm   170.59
I o cos o I o sin o
V2, I2, W2 be the readings on secondary side.
W2
Wsc   100W
2
V
Vsc  2  20V
2
I sc  I 2  12 A
Wsc
Ro 2   0.694
I sc 2
Vsc
Zo2   1.667
I sc
X o 2  Z o 2 2  Ro 2 2  1.516
Ro1  0.174
X o1  0.379
SEPARATION OF CORE LOSS INTO HYSTERESIS LOSS AND EDDY CURRENT LOSS
Hysteresis loss, Wh  fBm1.6
Eddy current loss, We  f 2 Bm 2
Wc  K h fBm1.6  K e f 2 Bm 2
Wc
Core loss / cycle =  K h Bm1.6  K e fBm 2
f
Also, V  E  4.44 fNBm A
V
Bm 
f
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V
For constant ratio, Bm is constant. Hence,
f
Wc
 K1  K 2 f
f
Wc
Plot of core loss/cycle against frequency f will give the following graph.
f
Values of K1 and K2 can be determined by performing open circuit test by varying frequency keeping V/f ratio
constant. (Frequency f and applied voltage V are varied maintaining V/f ratio constant.). Wattmeter reading during
OC test gives the core loss Wc.
Hysteresis loss, Wh  K1 f
Eddy current loss, We  K 2 f 2
In a transformer, the core loss is found to be 52W at 40Hz and 90W at 60Hz; both losses being measured at the
same peak flux density. Compute the hysteresis and eddy current losses at 50Hz.
Since Bm is constant,
Wc  K1 f  K 2 f 2
52  K1  40  K 2  402
90  K1  60  K 2  602
K1  0.9 K 2  0.01
Core loss at 50Hz  0.9  50  0.01 502  70W
Hysteresis loss at 50Hz = 45W
Eddy current loss at 50Hz = 25W
ALL-DAY EFFICIENCY
There are certain types of transformers whose performance cannot be judged by commercial efficiency.
For instance, distribution transformers used for supplying lighting loads have their primaries energized all the 24
hours in a day but the secondaries supply little or no load during the major portion of the day.
It means that a constant loss (i.e., iron loss) occurs during the whole day but copper loss occurs only when the
transformer is loaded and would depend upon the magnitude of load.
Consequently, the copper loss varies considerably during the day and the commercial efficiency of such transformers
will vary from a low value (or even zero) to a high value when the load is high.
The performance of such transformers is judged on the basis of energy consumption during the whole day (i.e., 24
hours). This is known as all day efficiency or energy efficiency.
The ratio of output in kWh to the input in kWh of a transformer over a 24-hour period is known as all day
efficiency.
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KWh output in 24hours

all-day efficiency=
KWh input in 24hours
All day efficiency is of special importance for those transformers whose primaries are never open-circuited but the
secondaries carry little or no load much of the time during the day.
In the design of such transformers, efforts should be made to reduce the iron losses which continuously occur
during the whole day.
Find the all-day efficiency of a 500kVA distribution transformer whose iron loss and full-load copper loss are
1.5kW and 6kW respectively. In a day, it is loaded as follows.
Hours Pout in kW p.f.
6 400 0.8
10 300 0.75
4 100 0.8
4 0 --
Ans:
S.No. Hours Pout kVA = Load factor Cu loss Core Total KWh KWh
kW Pout /p.f. x = kVA/500 x2Wcu loss Loss in output input
(kW) (kW) KWh
1 6 400 500 1 6 1.5 45 2400 2445
2 10 300 400 0.8 3.84 1.5 53.4 3000 3053.4
3 4 100 125 0.25 0.375 1.5 7.5 400 407.5
4 4 0 0 0 0 1.5 6 0 6
TOTAL 5800 5911.9
KWh output in 24hours 5800
all-day efficiency=  100  98.1%
KWh input in 24hours 5911.9
The daily variation of load on a 100kVA transformer is as follows:

Time kW kVAr
8 am – 1 pm 65 45
1 pm – 6 pm 80 50
6 pm – 1 am 30 30
1 am – 8 am No load --
This transformer has no-load core loss of 370W and a full-load ohmic loss of 1200W. Determine the all-day
efficiency of the transformer.
Hint: kVA  kW 2  kVAr 2
KVA RATING OF TRANSFORMER

The 'kVA rating' of a transformer decides how much apparent power can flow through a transformer without
exceeding a temperature rise associated with the rating.
Temperature rise in transformers is due to 2 type of losses:
iron loss which depend on the applied voltage, and the copper losses which are dependent on the current flowing
through windings.
As these power losses are independent of load power factor, so the temperature rise is governed by kVA and not
kW. That's why the power rating of transformers is in kVA and not in kW.
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PARALLEL OPERATION OF 1-PHASE TRANSFORMERS

In order to supply loads exceeding the rating of an existing transformer, two or more transformers are connected in
parallel to the existing one. The parallel operation of transformers facilitates load sharing between the transformers.
When a connected load at a load centre exceeds the MVA of the existing transformer, it is easier and economical to
install additional transformers in parallel to the existing one than to replace the existing one with a single larger
transformer.
Following are the merits of parallel connected transformers instead of singular transformer.
 The availability of transformers for service can be increased by connecting two or more of them in parallel.
During maintenance, only those transformers that requires maintenance can be taken out of service while
the other can still supply the loads.
 The parallel operation of transformers improves the reliability of the system. Even if any one of the
transformers fails due to some internal faults, the other will be available for the service.
 The efficiency of a transformer is always maximum at full load conditions. By operating transformers in
parallel, maximum efficiency of power distribution can be achieved by switching only the number of
transformers required to supply the total demand.
 As transformers can operate in parallel, the power system can be easily scaled for increasing load demands.
CONDITIONS TO BE SATISFIED FOR PARALLEL OPERATION OF 1-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
Essential conditions:
i) The transformers must have the same voltage ratios
ii) Polarities of the transformers are same
Desirable conditions:
i) Percentage (per unit) impedance of the transformers are same
ii) Resistance to reactance ratios are same
For 3-phase transformers, there are two additional essential conditions
i) Phase sequence of the transformers are the same
ii) Phase displacement between primary and secondary line voltages of the transformers are the same.
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Module 5 Autotransformer – saving of copper –rating of autotransformers. Three phase transformer –

construction- difference between power transformer and distribution transformer –Different connections of 3-
phase transformers. Υ-Υ, Δ-Δ,Υ-Δ, Δ-Υ, V-V. Vector groupings – Yy0, Dd0, Yd1, Yd11, Dy1, Dy11.Parallel
operation of three phase transformers. Three winding transformer – stabilization by tertiary winding. Tap
changing transformers - no load tap changing, on load tap changing, dry type transformers
AUTOTRANSFORMER
An auto transformer is a special type of transformer in which a part of winding is common to both the primary and
secondary. The operating principle and general construction of an auto transformer is the same as that of two-winding
transformer. In a two-winding transformer, primary and secondary windings are electrically isolated, but in an auto
transformer the two windings are not electrically isolated. Due to only one winding, auto transformer requires less
copper for winding, hence it is cheaper. Unlike a two winding transformer where power transfer is only inductive,
the power transfer in an autotransformer is both inductive and conductive.
Advantages of Autotransformer:
1. An autotransformer required less winding material (copper) than a 2-winding transformer.
2. The efficiency is higher compare to two-winding transformer.
3. An autotransformer is smaller in size and cheaper than the two-winding transformer of the same output. 4. Since
there is a reduction in conductor material and core material, the copper losses in conductor and the core are small.
5. The resistance and leakage reactance are less compared to two-winding transformer.
6. VA rating is more compared to two-winding transformer.
7. A smooth and continuous variation of voltage is possible.
Limitations of Autotransformer:
1. The secondary winding is not electrically insulated with primary winding.
2. The short circuit current in an autotransformer is large than that for the two-winding transformer.
3. No electrical separation between primary and secondary which is risky in case of high voltage levels.
Transformed VA and Conducted VA
If losses are neglected,
V1 I1  V2 I 2
V2 I1 N 2
   K = transformation ratio
V1 I 2 N1
For an autotransformer,
I1 = primary current
I2 = Secondary current
Output VA = V2 I 2  V2 ( I 2  I1 )  V2 I1
V2 ( I 2  I1 )  transformed VA
V2 I1  conducted VA
Output VA = transformed VA + conducted VA
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Saving of copper in Autotransformer compared to two-winding transformer
Let N1 be the number of turns between A & B and N2 be the number of turns between C & B.
Let I1, I2 be the primary and secondary currents respectively in both auto-transformer and two-winding transformer.
Weight of Cu is proportional to (area of cross-section x length)
Area of cross section is proportional to current.
Length is proportional to number of turns.
Hence, weight of Cu is proportional to product of current and number of turns.
Total weight of conductor in a 2-winding transformer ∞ I1 N1  I 2 N 2
In auto-transformer,
Current through AC = I1
Current through BC = I2-I1
Total weight of conductor in an autotransformer ∞ I1 ( N1  N 2 )  ( I 2  I1 ) N 2
Weight of conductor in autotransformer I ( N  N 2 )  ( I 2  I1 ) N 2
 1 1
Weight of conductor in 2-winding transformer I1 N1  I 2 N 2
2( N1  N 2 ) I1 N I1 N 2
 1 2  1 K (Note:  and I1 N1  I 2 N 2 )
2 I1 N1 N1 I 2 N1
Weight of conductor in autotransformer = (1-K) x Weight of conductor in two-winding transformer
Saving of Cu in autotransformer = K x Weight of conductor in two-winding transformer
Applications of Autotransformer:
1. Autotransformer is used as a variac (variable a.c) in laboratory and other situation that require continuously
variable voltage over broad range.
2. It can be used as a regulating transformer.
3. It can be used as a voltage booster in distribution system.
4. It can be used as a starter for safe starting of the machines like induction motor, synchronous motor.
POWER TRANSFORMERS AND DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS

The transformers used in power systems may be divided into two categories depending upon the type of service.
These are:
i) Distribution transformers and ii) power transformers
Distribution transformers: Transformers upto a size of about 500kVA used to step down the distribution voltage
to a standard service voltage or from transmission voltage to distribution voltage are usually known as distribution
transformers. They are kept in operation all the 24 hours a day whether they are carrying any load or not. Energy is
lost in iron losses throughout the day while the copper losses account for loss in energy when the transformer is
loaded. Therefore, distribution transformers should have their iron losses small as compared with full-load copper
losses. In other words, they should be designed to have maximum efficiency at a load much lower than full load
(about 50%). Owing to low iron loss, the distribution transformers have a good all-day efficiency. Distribution
transformers should have a good voltage regulation and therefore they should be designed for a small value of leakage
reactance.
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Power transformers: They have a rating above 500kVA and are used in generating stations and substations at each
end of a power transmission line for stepping up or stepping down the voltage. Actually, the power rating of the
power transformer is in the order of MVA. They may be either single-phase or 3-phase units. They are put in operation
during load designed to have maximum efficiency at or near full load. Power transformers are designed to have
considerably greater leakage reactance.
3-PHASE TRANSFORMER
Electric power is generated and transmitted using a three-phase system. In a three-phase circuit, the voltage is raised
or lowered by means of three-phase transformers.
Three number of identical single-phase transformers can be suitably connected for use in a three-phase system and
such a 3-phase transformer is called a bank of three phase transformer. Alternately, the three-phase transformer can
be built on a single core.
CONSTRUCTION OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
The three-phase transformer is constructed in two ways:
1. Three separate single-phase transformer is suitably connected for three-phase operation.
2. A single three-phase transformer in which the cores and windings for all the three phases are merged into a
single structure.
Advantages of using a single 3-phase unit instead of a bank of 3 single-phase units are
 Single ‘three-phase’ unit occupies less space than a bank of three single-phase transformers
 Single 'three phase' unit is more economical
 The overall bus-bar structure, switchgear and installation of single ‘three-phase’ unit is simpler.
Core-type 3-phase transformer
The core of the three phase transformer is usually made up of three limbs in the same plane. This can be built using
stack lamination. The each leg of this core carries the low voltage and high voltage winding. The low voltage
windings are insulated from the core than the high voltage windings. The low windings are placed next to the core
with suitable insulation between the core and the low voltage windings. The high voltage windings are placed over
the low voltage windings with suitable insulation between them.
Shell-type 3-phase transformer
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The shell type 3-phase transformer can be constructed by stacking three single phase shell type transformers as shown
in the figure. The winding direction of the central unit b is made opposite to that of units a and c.
3-PHASE TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS
Windings of a three-phase transformer can be connected in various configurations as (i) star-star, (ii) delta-delta, (iii)
star-delta, (iv) delta-star and (v) open delta. These configurations are explained below.
STAR-STAR CONNECTION
secondary phase voltage
Transformation ratio, K 
primary phase voltage
VL1  3VP1
VL 2  3VP 2
VL 2 VP 2
 K
VL1 VP1
 Star-star connection is generally used for small, high-voltage transformers. Because of star connection,
number of required turns/phase is reduced (as phase voltage in star connection is 1/√3 times of line voltage
only). Thus, the amount of insulation required is also reduced.
 The ratio of line voltages on the primary side and the secondary side is equal to the transformation ratio of
the transformers.
 Line voltages on both sides are in phase with each other.
 This connection can be used only if the connected load is balanced.
STAR-DELTA CONNECTION
VL1  3VP1
VL 2  VP 2
VL 2 1 VP 2 K
 
VL1 3 VP1 3
 This connection is mainly used in step down transformer at the substation end of the transmission line.
 The ratio of secondary to primary line voltage is 1/√3 times the transformation ratio.
 There is 30° shift between the primary and secondary line voltages.
DELTA – DELTA CONNECTION

VL1  VP1
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VL 2  VP 2
VL 2 VP 2
 K
VL1 VP1
 This connection is generally used for large, low-voltage transformers. Number of required turns/phase is
relatively greater than that for star-star connection.
 The ratio of line voltages on the primary and the secondary side is equal to the transformation ratio of the
transformers.
 This connection can be used even for unbalanced loading.
 Another advantage of this type of connection is that even if one transformer is disabled, system can
continue to operate in open delta connection but with reduced available capacity.
DELTA – STAR CONNECTION
VL1  VP1
VL 2  3VP 2
VL 2 3VP 2
  3K
VL1 VP1
 This type of connection is mainly used in step-up transformer at the beginning of transmission line.
 The ratio of secondary to primary line voltage is √3 times the transformation ratio.
 There is 30° shift between the primary and secondary line voltages.
OPEN DELTA (V – V) CONNECTION

An open delta connection transformer uses two single-phase transformers to provide a three-phase supply to the
load. An open delta connection system is also called a V-V system.
When one phase of the three single phase transformers connected in delta-delta bank is unable to operate or damaged.
Then supply to the load can be continued with the remaining two phase of transformers in open delta connection.
Open delta connection systems are usually used only in emergency conditions, as their efficiency is low when
compared to delta-delta (closed delta) systems (which are used during standard operations).
The load which can be delivered by a V – V bank is not 2/3 of the capacity of  -  bank, but only 57.7% of it.
When it connected in delta-delta so VA rating When it connected in open-delta so VA rating is

is given by, given by,
S  3VL I L  3VL I ph SVV  3VL I L  3VL I ph
SVV 1
  0.577
Hence, S 3
For example, if three transformers of 10kVA rating are connected to form a  -  bank, the rating of the bank is 3 x
10 = 30kVA. But if one of the transformer is removed and the operation is carried out with the remaining to
transformers by V – V connection, the rating now will be 30 x 0.577 = 17.3kVA only and not 20kVA.
Applications of open delta:
1. The circuit can be employed in an emergency situation when one transformer in a complete Δ-Δ circuit
must be removed for repair and continuity of service is required.
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2. Upon failure of the primary or secondary of one transformer of a complete Δ-Δ circuit, the system can be
operated as an open delta (V-V) circuit and can deliver 3-phase power (with reduced capacity) to a 3-phase
load.
3. A circuit is sometimes installed as an open delta (V-V) circuit with the understanding that its capacity may
be increased in future by adding one more transformer to form a complete Δ-Δ circuit. Thus, if a V-V
circuit is changed to complete Δ-Δ circuit, the capacity is increased by a factor of √3.
Advantages:
 Open-deltas require to install only two transformers.
 Future Capacity can be increased by simply installing a third similar sized transformer
Disadvantages:
 While the line-to-line voltages will be equal, the line to neutral voltages will have two phases being equal
and one phase being 1.732 times larger.
 Unbalanced single phase loads can cause voltage fluctuations and additional, uneven transformer heating.
 An open delta connection only has 58% of the capacity of a full set of three transformers,
VECTOR GROUPS OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMERS

The vector group indicates the phase difference between the primary and secondary sides, introduced due to that
particular configuration (Y-, -Y, Y-Y, -) of transformer windings connection.
Determination of vector group of transformers is very important before connecting two or more transformers in
parallel. If two transformers of different vector groups are connected in parallel then phase difference exist between
the secondary of the transformers and large circulating current flows between the two transformers which is very
detrimental.
3-phase transformer is divided into four main groups according to the phase difference between the corresponding
line voltage on the high voltage side and the low voltage sides. The phase difference is the angle by which the LV
line voltage lags the HV line voltage, and is measured in units of 30° in clockwise direction. These groups are
 Group number 1 – no phase displacement
 Group number 2 – 180° phase displacement.
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 Group number 3 – (-30°) phase displacement.

 Group number 4 – (+ 30°) phase displacement.
The connection Y d 11 gives the following information – Y indicates that the high voltage is connected in star and d
indicates the low voltage is connected in delta. The 11 indicates that the LV line voltage lags HV line voltage by 11
Χ 30° = 330° measured from HV line voltage phasor in a clockwise direction.
The phasor differences can also be measured by using the clock methods. According to this method, the HV line
phasor is considered as the minute hand always set at 12 O’clock (zero hour) position and the corresponding LV
line phasor is represented by hour hand. The angle of 30° is the angle between two adjacent figures on the clock
dial and is taken as the unit of dial shift.
When the hour hand of the clock is at 12, then the phase displacement is zero. When the hour hand is at 1 then the
phase shift -30° degree. At 6 the phase shift is 6 x 30º = 180º. Similarly, when the hour hand is at 11 the phase shift
is 11 x 30º = 330º.
The number 0, 6, 1, and 11 in the group reference number indicates the primary to secondary phase shift regarding
the hours of the clock. The connection designated by D y 11 is the delta-star transformer in which the low voltage
line phasor is at 11 and is a phase advanced of +30° on the corresponding line voltage on the high voltage side.
Group O’clock Phase Difference Connection
Group 1 0 o’clock 0˚ Y-Y, -
Group 2 6 o’clock 180˚ Y-Y, -
Group 3 1 o’clock -30˚ Y-, - Y
Group 4 11 o’clock +30˚ Y-, - Y
Note: The only transformer in the same group may be connected in parallel. For example, a star-star, 3-phase
transformers can be parallel with another 3-phase transformer whose windings are either connected in Y-Y or ∆-∆.
The ∆-∆ transformer cannot be parallel with Y-∆ transformer.
PARALLEL OPERATION OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMERS

Conditions to be satisfied for parallel operation of 3-phase transformers
Essential conditions:
i) The transformers must have the same voltage ratios
ii) Polarities of the transformers are same
iii) Phase sequence of the transformers are the same
iv) Phase displacement between primary and secondary line voltages of the transformers are the same. This
means that transformers to be connected in parallel must belong to same Group number like Yy0 and
Dd0 belong to same group number viz. Group 1.
Desirable conditions:
i) Percentage (per unit) impedance of the transformers are same
ii) Resistance to reactance ratios are same
3-WINDING TRANSFORMER
Transformers may be built with a third winding called the tertiary winding in addition to the normal primary and
secondary windings and such transformers are called 3-winding transformer.
The tertiary winding may serve any of the following purposes:
i) To supply the substation auxiliaries at a voltage different from those of the primary and secondary
windings.
ii) Static capacitors or synchronous condensers may be connected to the tertiary winding for reactive power
injection into the system for voltage control.
iii) A delta-connected tertiary reduces the impedance offered to the zero sequence currents thereby allowing
a larger earth-fault current to flow for proper operation of protective equipment. Further, it limits voltage
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imbalance when the load is unbalanced. It also permits the third harmonic current to flow thereby
reducing third-harmonic voltages.
iv) Three windings may be used for interconnecting three transmission lines at different voltages.
v) Tertiary can serve the purpose of measuring voltage of an HV testing trans-former.
Note: When used for purpose (iii) above the tertiary winding is called a stabilizing winding.
Tertiary windings are normally delta connected. The provision of a delta-connected tertiary permits the circulation
of zero-sequence currents in it, thereby considerably reducing the zero-sequence impedance.
TAP-CHANGING
In transmission and distribution systems there can be voltage fluctuations (i.e., increase or decrease in voltage levels)
when the load on the system varies. These fluctuations can also be caused due to a voltage drop in the distribution
system. Sometimes these variations in voltage levels can result in quite unsatisfactory performance.
In order to maintain a constant voltage or to maintain within the prescribed limits transformer tap-changing is used.
In tap-changing, the tappings on the coils of the transformer are placed so that by varying the turn-ratio voltage
induced can be varied.
This arrangement is done externally to the transformer by taking coil terminals out of the transformer tank. Usually,
the maximum allowable variation of the turn-ratio can be up to ±2% to 5%. There are two types of tap-changing
transformers,
 Off-Load Tap-Changing Transformer.
 On-Load Tap-Changing Transformer.
Off-Load Tap-Changing Transformer
The below figure shows the off-load tap-changing transformer provided with tappings (1 to 5) on the secondary
winding. The position of the movable arm on the first stud will give minimum secondary voltage and on the fifth
stud will give maximum voltage across secondary.
During the light load period, the movable arm is placed on the first stud and with an increase in load, the movable
arm is taken to a stud (2, 3, 4, or 5) giving higher turns-ratio so that voltage drop in the line is compensated and the
output secondary voltage is maintained.
The disadvantage of this scheme is whenever the tapping is to change load must be disconnected first from the
transformer thus it is referred to as off-load tap-changing. This type of tap-changing cannot be used where continuity
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of the supply to the load is the main priority and it is limited where there will be a need for only slight changing in
the turn-ratio.
On-Load Tap-Changing Transformer
During the light load period, the movable arms A and B are placed on the studs 1 and 1’ respectively.
In this position, the voltage is at minimum and the current divides equally in the two halves of the coil L resulting in
zero resultant flux and minimum impedance. To increase the voltage, S1 opens and the total current passes through
the other half of the reactor. Selector switch B then moves to the stud 2’ and S1 closes. A circulating current now
flows in L superimposed on the load current. Then, S2 opens and A moves to the next tapping (stud 2); S2 then closes
and the operation is complete. To avoid large voltage disturbances, the voltage change between taps is normally
small; about 1.25 % of the nominal voltage.
DRY TYPE TRANSFORMER

Dry type transformer is a kind of voltage transformer utilizes air cooling method to reduce its working temperature.
Compared with oil immersed transformer, iron core and windings of a dry type transformer are not immersed in the
insulation oil.
The main advantages of dry type transformer are given below.
 Safety for people and property.
 Maintenance and pollution-free solution.
 Easy installation.
 Environmentally friendly.
 Excellent capacity to support overloads.
 Reduced cost on civil installation works and fire protection systems.
 Excellent performance in case of seismic events.
 No fire hazard.
 Excellent resistance to short circuit currents.
 Suited for damp and contaminated areas.
But there are some disadvantages of dry type transformer. They are-
 Dry type transformer is long lasting and with less chance of winding failure. But once it fails whole set up is
to be changed.
 For same power and voltage rating, dry type transformer is costlier than oil cooled transformer.
Types of Dry Type Transformers

The dry type transformer is of two types. They are
1. Cast Resin Dry Type Transformer (CRT)
2. Vacuum pressure Impregnated Transformer (VPI)
Cast Resin Dry Type Transformer (CRT)
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The primary and secondary of the transformer is encapsulated with epoxy resin. This encapsulation of the winding
prevents the possibility of penetration of the moisture in the winding. Thus, cast resin dry type transformer (CRT)
can be safely used in the high moisture prone areas.
This type of transformer is available in ratings of 25 KVA to 12,500 KVA.
This type of transformer has some featured advantages. They are-
1. Better over load capacity.
2. Lower load losses and higher efficiency
3. No use of oil – Zero risk to fire hazard make it suitable for indoor installation.
4. Does not absorb moisture- non hygroscopic
5. Eco-friendly and safe
Vacuum Pressure Impregnated Transformer (VPI)
In a vacuum impregnated transformer, the primary and secondary winding is impregnated with resin within a vacuum
chamber. The winding is made in the form of foil or strip. For higher voltage application the winding is made in the
form of disc.
VPI gives a chance for repair of the winding in case there is some winding fault but CRT is a solid mass and it cannot
be repaired. This type of transformer is available from 5KVA to 30MVA.
This type of transformer has several advantages. They are-
1. High mechanical strength.
2. Void free insulation.
3. No temperature fluctuation.
4. Easy maintenance.
5. Less prone to fire hazard.
Dry type transformers are widely used in-

 Chemical, oil and gas industry
 Environmentally sensitive areas (e.g. water protection areas)
 Fire-risk areas (e.g. forests)
 Inner-city substations
 Indoor and underground substations
 Renewable generation (e.g. off-shore wind turbines)
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APJ ABDUL KALAM TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

FOURTH SEMESTER B.TECH. DEGREE EXAMINATION
MONTH & YEAR
Course Code: EET 202
Course Name: DC MACHINES & TRANSFORMERS
Maximum Marks: 100 Time: 3 Hrs
PART A
Answer all questions. Each question carries 3 marks.
1. Compare lap and wave windings in DC machines 3
2. Explain the need of dummy coils in DC machines. 3
3. What is armature reaction and mention two methods to eliminate it in DC machines. 3
4. What are the necessary conditions for voltage build in a DC shunt generator? 3
5. Explain the significance of back emf in a DC motor. Write down the voltage equation 3
of a DC shunt motor.
6. Discuss the different types of armature speed control in DC shunt motor. 3
7. Derive the emf equation for a single-phase transformer. 3
8. How the rating of a transformer is specified? Justify. 3
9. Discuss the operation of open delt (V-V) configuration of transformers. 3
10. Discuss the need and working of on-load tap changers. 3
PART B
Answer any one full question from each module. Each question carries 14 marks.
Module 1
11. a) Discuss the need of equalizer rings. 5
b) Obtain the front and back pitch of a progressive simplex double layer wave finding for 9
a 4-pole DC generator with 30 armature conductors.
12. Explain the construction of a DC machine with neat diagram. 14
Module 2
13. Explain different types of DC generator with neat circuit diagram and necessary 14
equations.
14. Two DC shunt generators with induced emfs of 120V and 115V, armature resistance 14
of 0.05Ω and 0.04Ω and field resistances of 20Ω and 25Ω respectively are in parallel
supplying a total load of 25kW. Calculate the load shared by each generator.
Module 3
15. Draw the circuit diagram and explain the experimental procedure to conduct 14
Hopkinson’s test on DC machine.
16. A DC machine is rated at 5kW, 250V, 2000rpm and Ra=1Ω. Driven at 2000rpm, the 14
no load power input to the armature is 1.2A at 250V with field winding (R sh = 250Ω),
excited by Ish = 1A. i) Estimate efficiency as a generator delivering 5kW to the load ii)
Estimate the efficiency as a motor taking 5kW from supply.
Module 4
17. a) Derive the condition for maximum efficiency and the load current at which maximum 8
efficiency occurs in a single-phase transformer.
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b) Discuss the significance of all day efficiency of transformers. 6

18. A 20kVA, 250/2500V single phase transformer gave the following test results 14
OC Test (LV side): 200V 1.4A 105W
SC Test (HV side): 120V 8A 320W
Draw the equivalent circuit of single-phase transformer referred to LV side.
Module 5
19. Explain auto-transformer with neat diagram and derive an expression to justify the 14
saving of copper in auto-transformer with respect to an ordinary two winding
transformer with same rating.
20. Explain Dy11 and Yd1 vector groupings of 3-phase transformers with phasor and 14
winding connection diagrams.
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DCMT Lecture Notes Full

Basics Of Electrical & Electronics Engineering (APJ Abdul Kalam Technological

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EET202 DCMT Lecture Notes by TG Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Idukki

EET202 – DC MACHINES & TRANSFORMERS

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EET202 DCMT Lecture Notes by TG Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Idukki

Course Contents and Lecture Schedule:

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EET202 DCMT Lecture Notes by TG Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Idukki

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF DC GENERATOR AND MOTOR

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EET202 DCMT Lecture Notes by TG Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Idukki

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EET202 DCMT Lecture Notes by TG Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Idukki

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EET202 DCMT Lecture Notes by TG Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Idukki

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EET202 DCMT Lecture Notes by TG Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Idukki

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EET202 DCMT Lecture Notes by TG Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Idukki

No. of parallel paths = No. of poles

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EET202 DCMT Lecture Notes by TG Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Idukki

SIMPLEX LAP SIMPLEX WAVE

S=12; P=4; C=12 (No. of coils = No. of commutator segments)

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EET202 DCMT Lecture Notes by TG Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Idukki

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EET202 DCMT Lecture Notes by TG Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Idukki

Note : Each ring is connected to P/2 coils.

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EET202 DCMT Lecture Notes by TG Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Idukki

S=24; P=4; C=12 (No. of coils = No. of commutator segments)

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EET202 DCMT Lecture Notes by TG Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Idukki

S=16; P=6; C=16 (No. of coils = No. of commutator segments)

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EET202 DCMT Lecture Notes by TG Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Idukki

S=16; P=6; C=16 (No. of coils = No. of commutator segments=No. of slots)

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EET202 DCMT Lecture Notes by TG Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Idukki

ARMATURE MMF & FLUX DISTRIBUTION DUE TO ARMATURE CONDUCTORS ALONE

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EET202 DCMT Lecture Notes by TG Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Idukki

EMF INDUCED IN ARMATURE

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EET202 DCMT Lecture Notes by TG Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Idukki

P = 6; Z = 300,  = 0.015Wb, N = 1800rpm, Ic = 80A

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EET202 DCMT Lecture Notes by TG Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Idukki

Power developed = 135 x 480 = 64800W

P = 4; Z = 60 x 20 = 1200,  = 0.025Wb, Ia = 60A

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EET202 DCMT Lecture Notes by TG Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Idukki

 ZN P 0.04187  960 1200 6

SHAPE OF DC OUTPUT VOLTAGE

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EET202 DCMT Lecture Notes by TG Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Idukki

EET202 - DC MACHINES & TRANSFORMERS

GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE, IDUKKI

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