Germanium

Germanium is a chemical element; it has symbol

Ge and atomic number 32. It is lustrous, hard- Germanium, 32Ge
brittle, grayish-white and similar in appearance to
silicon. It is a metalloid in the carbon group that is
chemically similar to its group neighbors silicon
and tin. Like silicon, germanium naturally reacts
and forms complexes with oxygen in nature.

Because it seldom appears in high concentration,

germanium was discovered comparatively late in
the discovery of the elements. Germanium ranks
near fiftieth in relative abundance of the elements
in the Earth's crust. In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev
predicted its existence and some of its properties
from its position on his periodic table, and called Germanium
the element ekasilicon. In 1886, Clemens Winkler Pronunciation /dʒɜːrˈmeɪniəm/ ​
at Freiberg University found the new element,
(jur-MAY -nee-əm)
along with silver and sulfur, in the mineral
argyrodite. Winkler named the element after his Appearance grayish-white
country, Germany. Germanium is mined primarily
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Ge)
from sphalerite (the primary ore of zinc), though
germanium is also recovered commercially from 72.630 ± 0.008
silver, lead, and copper ores. 72.630 ± 0.008 (abridged)[1]

Elemental germanium is used as a semiconductor Germanium in the periodic table

in transistors and various other electronic devices.
Si
Historically, the first decade of semiconductor ↑
electronics was based entirely on germanium. Ge
↓
Presently, the major end uses are fibre-optic Sn
systems, infrared optics, solar cell applications, gallium ← germanium → arsenic
and light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Germanium
Atomic number (Z) 32
compounds are also used for polymerization
catalysts and have most recently found use in the Group group 14 (carbon group)
production of nanowires. This element forms a Period period 4
large number of organogermanium compounds,
such as tetraethylgermanium, useful in Block p-block
organometallic chemistry. Germanium is Electron [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p2
considered a technology-critical element.[7] configuration
Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 4
Germanium is not thought to be an essential
element for any living organism. Similar to silicon Physical properties
and aluminium, naturally-occurring germanium Phase at STP solid
compounds tend to be insoluble in water and thus
have little oral toxicity. However, synthetic soluble Melting point 1211.40 K ​(938.25 °C, ​
germanium salts are nephrotoxic, and synthetic 1720.85 °F)
chemically reactive germanium compounds with
Boiling point 3106 K ​(2833 °C, ​5131 °F)
halogens and hydrogen are irritants and toxins.
Density (near r.t.) 5.323 g/cm3

History when liquid (at m.p.) 5.60 g/cm3

Heat of fusion 36.94 kJ/mol
Heat of 334 kJ/mol
vaporization
Molar heat 23.222 J/(mol·K)
Prediction of germanium, "?
capacity
=70" (periodic table 1869)
Vapor pressure

In his report on The Periodic Law of the Chemical P (Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
Elements in 1869, the Russian chemist Dmitri at T (K) 1644 1814 2023 2287 2633 3104
Mendeleev predicted the existence of several
unknown chemical elements, including one that Atomic properties
would fill a gap in the carbon family, located
Oxidation states −4, −3, −2, −1, 0,[2] +1, +2,
between silicon and tin.[8] Because of its position
+3, +4 (an amphoteric oxide)
in his periodic table, Mendeleev called it
ekasilicon (Es), and he estimated its atomic weight Electronegativity Pauling scale: 2.01
to be 70 (later 72). Ionization energies 1st: 762 kJ/mol

In mid-1885, at a mine near Freiberg, Saxony, a 2nd: 1537.5 kJ/mol

new mineral was discovered and named argyrodite 3rd: 3302.1 kJ/mol
because of its high silver content.[note 1] The
chemist Clemens Winkler analyzed this new Atomic radius empirical: 122 pm
mineral, which proved to be a combination of Covalent radius 122 pm
silver, sulfur, and a new element. Winkler was able
Van der Waals 211 pm
to isolate the new element in 1886 and found it
similar to antimony. He initially considered the radius
new element to be eka-antimony, but was soon
convinced that it was instead eka-silicon.[10][11]
Before Winkler published his results on the new Spectral lines of germanium
element, he decided that he would name his Other properties
element neptunium, since the recent discovery of
planet Neptune in 1846 had similarly been Natural occurrence primordial
preceded by mathematical predictions of its Crystal structure ​face-centered diamond-cubic
existence.[note 2] However, the name "neptunium"
had already been given to another proposed
chemical element (though not the element that
today bears the name neptunium, which was
Speed of sound 5400 m/s (at 20 °C)
discovered in 1940).[note 3] So instead, Winkler
thin rod
named the new element germanium (from the
Latin word, Germania, for Germany) in honor of Thermal expansion 6.0 µm/(m⋅K)
his homeland.[11] Argyrodite proved empirically to Thermal 60.2 W/(m⋅K)
be Ag8 GeS6 . Because this new element showed conductivity
some similarities with the elements arsenic and
Electrical 1 Ω⋅m (at 20 °C)
antimony, its proper place in the periodic table was
resistivity
under consideration, but its similarities with Dmitri
Mendeleev's predicted element "ekasilicon" Band gap 0.67 eV (at 300 K)
confirmed that place on the periodic table.[11][18]
Magnetic ordering diamagnetic[3]
With further material from 500 kg of ore from the
mines in Saxony, Winkler confirmed the chemical Molar magnetic −76.84 × 10−6 cm3/mol[4]
properties of the new element in 1887.[10][11][19] susceptibility
He also determined an atomic weight of 72.32 by Young's modulus 103 GPa[5]
analyzing pure germanium tetrachloride (GeCl4 ), Shear modulus 41 GPa[5]
while Lecoq de Boisbaudran deduced 72.3 by a
comparison of the lines in the spark spectrum of Bulk modulus 75 GPa[5]
the element.[20] Poisson ratio 0.26[5]
Mohs hardness 6.0
Winkler was able to prepare several new
compounds of germanium, including fluorides, CAS Number 7440-56-4
chlorides, sulfides, dioxide, and tetraethylgermane History
(Ge(C2 H5 )4 ), the first organogermane.[10] The
Naming after Germany, homeland of
physical data from those compounds—which
the discoverer
corresponded well with Mendeleev's predictions—
made the discovery an important confirmation of Prediction Dmitri Mendeleev (1869)
Mendeleev's idea of element periodicity. Here is a Discovery Clemens Winkler (1886)
comparison between the prediction and Winkler's
Isotopes of germanium
data:[10]
Main isotopes[6] Decay
Ekasilicon Germanium
Mendeleev Winkler abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
Property
prediction discovery
(1871) (1887) 68 68
Ge synth 270.8 d ε Ga
atomic mass 72.64 72.63 70
Ge 20.5% stable
3 5.5 5.35
density (g/cm )
71 71
Ge synth 11.3 d ε Ga
melting point
high 947 72
(°C) Ge 27.4% stable
color gray gray 73
Ge 7.76% stable
refractory refractory
oxide type 74
dioxide dioxide Ge 36.5% stable
oxide density
4.7 4.7 76
Ge 7.75% 1.78×1021 y β−β− 76
Se
(g/cm3)
oxide activity feebly basic feebly basic
chloride boiling
under 100 86 (GeCl4)
point (°C)

chloride density
1.9 1.9
(g/cm3)

Until the late 1930s, germanium was thought to be a poorly conducting metal.[21] Germanium did not
become economically significant until after 1945 when its properties as an electronic semiconductor were
recognized. During World War II, small amounts of germanium were used in some special electronic
devices, mostly diodes.[22][23] The first major use was the point-contact Schottky diodes for radar pulse
detection during the War.[21] The first silicon–germanium alloys were obtained in 1955.[24] Before 1945,
only a few hundred kilograms of germanium were produced in smelters each year, but by the end of the
1950s, the annual worldwide production had reached 40 metric tons (44 short tons).[25]
The development of the germanium transistor in 1948[26] opened the door to countless applications of solid
state electronics.[27] From 1950 through the early 1970s, this area provided an increasing market for
germanium, but then high-purity silicon began replacing germanium in transistors, diodes, and rectifiers.[28]
For example, the company that became Fairchild Semiconductor was founded in 1957 with the express
purpose of producing silicon transistors. Silicon has superior electrical properties, but it requires much
greater purity that could not be commercially achieved in the early years of semiconductor electronics.[29]

Meanwhile, the demand for germanium for fiber optic communication networks, infrared night vision
systems, and polymerization catalysts increased dramatically.[25] These end uses represented 85% of
worldwide germanium consumption in 2000.[28] The US government even designated germanium as a
strategic and critical material, calling for a 146 ton (132 tonne) supply in the national defense stockpile in
1987.[25]

Germanium differs from silicon in that the supply is limited by the availability of exploitable sources, while
the supply of silicon is limited only by production capacity since silicon comes from ordinary sand and
quartz. While silicon could be bought in 1998 for less than $10 per kg,[25] the price of germanium was
almost $800 per kg.[25]

Characteristics
Under standard conditions, germanium is a brittle, silvery-white, semi-metallic element.[30] This form
constitutes an allotrope known as α-germanium, which has a metallic luster and a diamond cubic crystal
structure, the same as diamond.[28] While in crystal form, germanium has a displacement threshold energy
of .[31] At pressures above 120 kbar, germanium becomes the allotrope β-germanium with the
same structure as β-tin.[32] Like silicon, gallium, bismuth, antimony, and water, germanium is one of the
few substances that expands as it solidifies (i.e. freezes) from the molten state.[32]

Germanium is a semiconductor having an indirect bandgap, as is crystalline silicon. Zone refining

techniques have led to the production of crystalline germanium for semiconductors that has an impurity of
only one part in 1010 ,[33] making it one of the purest materials ever obtained.[34] The first semi-metallic
material discovered (in 2005) to become a superconductor in the presence of an extremely strong
electromagnetic field was an alloy of germanium, uranium, and rhodium.[35]

Pure germanium is known to spontaneously extrude very long screw dislocations, referred to as germanium
whiskers. The growth of these whiskers is one of the primary reasons for the failure of older diodes and
transistors made from germanium, as, depending on what they eventually touch, they may lead to an
electrical short.[36]

Chemistry

Elemental germanium starts to oxidize slowly in air at around 250 °C, forming GeO2 .[37] Germanium is
insoluble in dilute acids and alkalis but dissolves slowly in hot concentrated sulfuric and nitric acids and
2−
reacts violently with molten alkalis to produce germanates ([GeO3 ] ). Germanium occurs mostly in the
oxidation state +4 although many +2 compounds are known.[38] Other oxidation states are rare: +3 is found
in compounds such as Ge2 Cl6 , and +3 and +1 are found on the surface of oxides,[39] or negative oxidation
states in germanides, such as −4 in Mg2 Ge. Germanium cluster anions (Zintl ions) such as Ge4 2−, Ge9 4−,
Ge9 2−, [(Ge9 )2 ]6− have been prepared by the extraction from alloys containing alkali metals and
germanium in liquid ammonia in the presence of ethylenediamine or a cryptand.[38][40] The oxidation states
of the element in these ions are not integers—similar to the ozonides O3 −.

Two oxides of germanium are known: germanium dioxide (GeO2 , germania) and germanium monoxide,
(GeO).[32] The dioxide, GeO2 , can be obtained by roasting germanium disulfide (GeS2 ), and is a white
powder that is only slightly soluble in water but reacts with alkalis to form germanates.[32] The monoxide,
germanous oxide, can be obtained by the high temperature reaction of GeO2 with elemental Ge.[32] The
dioxide (and the related oxides and germanates) exhibits the unusual property of having a high refractive
index for visible light, but transparency to infrared light.[41][42] Bismuth germanate, Bi4 Ge3 O12 (BGO), is
used as a scintillator.[43]

Binary compounds with other chalcogens are also known, such as the disulfide (GeS2 ) and diselenide
(GeSe2 ), and the monosulfide (GeS), monoselenide (GeSe), and monotelluride (GeTe).[38] GeS2 forms as
a white precipitate when hydrogen sulfide is passed through strongly acid solutions containing Ge(IV).[38]
The disulfide is appreciably soluble in water and in solutions of caustic alkalis or alkaline sulfides.
Nevertheless, it is not soluble in acidic water, which allowed Winkler to discover the element.[44] By
heating the disulfide in a current of hydrogen, the monosulfide (GeS) is formed, which sublimes in thin
plates of a dark color and metallic luster, and is soluble in solutions of the caustic alkalis.[32] Upon melting
with alkaline carbonates and sulfur, germanium compounds form salts known as thiogermanates.[45]

Four tetrahalides are known. Under normal conditions GeI4 is a solid,

GeF4 a gas and the others volatile liquids. For example, germanium
tetrachloride, GeCl4 , is obtained as a colorless fuming liquid boiling at
83.1 °C by heating the metal with chlorine.[32] All the tetrahalides are
readily hydrolyzed to hydrated germanium dioxide.[32] GeCl4 is used in the
production of organogermanium compounds.[38] All four dihalides are
known and in contrast to the tetrahalides are polymeric solids.[38]
Germane is similar to Additionally Ge2 Cl6 and some higher compounds of formula Gen Cl2n+2
methane. are known.[32] The unusual compound Ge6 Cl16 has been prepared that
contains the Ge5 Cl12 unit with a neopentane structure.[46]

Germane (GeH4 ) is a compound similar in structure to methane. Polygermanes—compounds that are

similar to alkanes—with formula Gen H2n+2 containing up to five germanium atoms are known.[38] The
germanes are less volatile and less reactive than their corresponding silicon analogues.[38] GeH4 reacts with
alkali metals in liquid ammonia to form white crystalline MGeH3 which contain the GeH3 − anion.[38] The
germanium hydrohalides with one, two and three halogen atoms are colorless reactive liquids.[38]

The first organogermanium compound was synthesized

by Winkler in 1887; the reaction of germanium
tetrachloride with diethylzinc yielded tetraethylgermane
(Ge(C2 H5 )4 ).[10] Organogermanes of the type R4 Ge
(where R is an alkyl) such as tetramethylgermane
Nucleophilic addition with an organogermanium
(Ge(CH3 )4 ) and tetraethylgermane are accessed through compound
the cheapest available germanium precursor germanium
tetrachloride and alkyl nucleophiles. Organic germanium
hydrides such as isobutylgermane ((CH3 )2 CHCH2 GeH3 ) were found to be less hazardous and may be
used as a liquid substitute for toxic germane gas in semiconductor applications. Many germanium reactive
intermediates are known: germyl free radicals, germylenes (similar to carbenes), and germynes (similar to
carbynes).[47][48] The organogermanium compound 2-carboxyethylgermasesquioxane was first reported in
the 1970s, and for a while was used as a dietary supplement and thought to possibly have anti-tumor
qualities.[49]

Using a ligand called Eind (1,1,3,3,5,5,7,7-octaethyl-s-hydrindacen-4-yl) germanium is able to form a

double bond with oxygen (germanone). Germanium hydride and germanium tetrahydride are very
flammable and even explosive when mixed with air.[50]

Isotopes
70 72 73 74 76 76
Germanium occurs in five natural isotopes: Ge, Ge, Ge, Ge, and Ge. Of these, Ge is very
74
slightly radioactive, decaying by double beta decay with a half-life of 1.78 × 1021 years. Ge is the most
76
common isotope, having a natural abundance of approximately 36%. Ge is the least common with a
72
natural abundance of approximately 7%.[51] When bombarded with alpha particles, the isotope Ge will
77
generate stable Se, releasing high energy electrons in the process.[52] Because of this, it is used in
combination with radon for nuclear batteries.[52]

At least 27 radioisotopes have also been synthesized, ranging in atomic mass from 58 to 89. The most
68
stable of these is Ge, decaying by electron capture with a half-life of 270.95 days. The least stable is
60 61
Ge, with a half-life of 30 ms. While most of germanium's radioisotopes decay by beta decay, Ge and
64 + 84 87 −
Ge decay by β delayed proton emission.[51] Ge through Ge isotopes also exhibit minor β delayed
neutron emission decay paths.[51]

Occurrence

Germanium is created by stellar nucleosynthesis, mostly by the s-

process in asymptotic giant branch stars. The s-process is a slow
neutron capture of lighter elements inside pulsating red giant
stars.[53] Germanium has been detected in some of the most distant
stars[54] and in the atmosphere of Jupiter.[55]

Germanium's abundance in the Earth's crust is approximately

1.6 ppm.[56] Only a few minerals like argyrodite, briartite,
germanite, renierite and sphalerite contain appreciable amounts of
Renierite
germanium.[28][57] Only few of them (especially germanite) are,
very rarely, found in mineable amounts.[58][59][60] Some zinc–
copper–lead ore bodies contain enough germanium to justify extraction from the final ore concentrate.[56]
An unusual natural enrichment process causes a high content of germanium in some coal seams, discovered
by Victor Moritz Goldschmidt during a broad survey for germanium deposits.[61][62] The highest
concentration ever found was in Hartley coal ash with as much as 1.6% germanium.[61][62] The coal
deposits near Xilinhaote, Inner Mongolia, contain an estimated 1600 tonnes of germanium.[56]

Production
About 118 tonnes of germanium were produced in 2011 worldwide, mostly in China (80 t), Russia (5 t)
and United States (3 t).[28] Germanium is recovered as a by-product from sphalerite zinc ores where it is
concentrated in amounts as great as 0.3%,[63] especially from low-temperature sediment-hosted, massive
Zn–Pb–Cu(–Ba) deposits and carbonate-hosted Zn–Pb deposits.[64] A recent study found that at least
10,000 t of extractable germanium is contained in known zinc reserves, particularly those hosted by
Mississippi-Valley type deposits, while at least 112,000 t will be found in coal reserves.[65][66] In 2007 35%
of the demand was met by recycled germanium.[56]

While it is produced mainly from sphalerite, it is also found in silver, lead, and copper
ores. Another source of germanium is fly ash of power plants fueled from coal Cost
deposits that contain germanium. Russia and China used this as a source for Year ($/kg) [67]
germanium.[68] Russia's deposits are located in the far east of Sakhalin Island, and 1999 1,400
northeast of Vladivostok. The deposits in China are located mainly in the lignite
mines near Lincang, Yunnan; coal is also mined near Xilinhaote, Inner Mongolia.[56] 2000 1,250
2001 890
The ore concentrates are mostly sulfidic; they are converted to the oxides by heating
under air in a process known as roasting: 2002 620
2003 380
GeS2 + 3 O2 → GeO2 + 2 SO2
2004 600
Some of the germanium is left in the dust produced, while the rest is converted to 2005 660
germanates, which are then leached (together with zinc) from the cinder by sulfuric
2006 880
acid. After neutralization, only the zinc stays in solution while germanium and other
metals precipitate. After removing some of the zinc in the precipitate by the Waelz 2007 1,240
process, the residing Waelz oxide is leached a second time. The dioxide is obtained as 2008 1,490
precipitate and converted with chlorine gas or hydrochloric acid to germanium
2009 950
tetrachloride, which has a low boiling point and can be isolated by distillation:[68]
2010 940
GeO2 + 4 HCl → GeCl4 + 2 H2O
2011 1,625
GeO2 + 2 Cl2 → GeCl4 + O2
2012 1,680
Germanium tetrachloride is either hydrolyzed to the oxide (GeO2 ) or purified by 2013 1,875
fractional distillation and then hydrolyzed.[68] The highly pure GeO2 is now suitable
2014 1,900
for the production of germanium glass. It is reduced to the element by reacting it with
hydrogen, producing germanium suitable for infrared optics and semiconductor 2015 1,760
production: 2016 950

GeO2 + 2 H2 → Ge + 2 H2O 2017 1,358

2018 1,300
The germanium for steel production and other industrial processes is normally
2019 1,240
reduced using carbon:[69]
2020 1,000
GeO2 + C → Ge + CO2

Applications
The major end uses for germanium in 2007, worldwide, were estimated to be: 35% for fiber-optics, 30%
infrared optics, 15% polymerization catalysts, and 15% electronics and solar electric applications.[28] The
remaining 5% went into such uses as phosphors, metallurgy, and chemotherapy.[28]

Optics

The notable properties of germania (GeO2 ) are its high index of refraction and
its low optical dispersion. These make it especially useful for wide-angle camera
lenses, microscopy, and the core part of optical fibers.[70][71] It has replaced
titania as the dopant for silica fiber, eliminating the subsequent heat treatment
that made the fibers brittle.[72] At the end of 2002, the fiber optics industry
consumed 60% of the annual germanium use in the United States, but this is less
than 10% of worldwide consumption.[71] GeSbTe is a phase change material A typical single-mode
used for its optic properties, such as that used in rewritable DVDs.[73] optical fiber.
Germanium oxide is a
Because germanium is transparent in the infrared wavelengths, it is an important dopant of the core
infrared optical material that can be readily cut and polished into lenses and silica (Item 1).
windows. It is especially used as the front optic in thermal imaging cameras
working in the 8 to 14 micron range for passive thermal imaging and for hot- 1. Core 8 µm
spot detection in military, mobile night vision, and fire fighting applications.[69] 2. Cladding
It is used in infrared spectroscopes and other optical equipment that require 125 µm
extremely sensitive infrared detectors.[71] It has a very high refractive index 3. Buffer 250 µm
(4.0) and must be coated with anti-reflection agents. Particularly, a very hard 4. Jacket 400 µm
special antireflection coating of diamond-like carbon (DLC), refractive index
2.0, is a good match and produces a diamond-hard surface that can withstand
much environmental abuse.[74][75]

Electronics

Germanium can be alloyed with silicon, and silicon–germanium alloys are rapidly becoming an important
semiconductor material for high-speed integrated circuits. Circuits utilizing the properties of Si-SiGe
heterojunctions can be much faster than those using silicon alone.[76] The SiGe chips, with high-speed
properties, can be made with low-cost, well-established production techniques of the silicon chip
industry.[28]

High efficiency solar panels are a major use of germanium. Because germanium and gallium arsenide have
nearly identical lattice constant, germanium substrates can be used to make gallium-arsenide solar cells.[77]
Germanium is the substrate of the wafers for high-efficiency multijunction photovoltaic cells for space
applications, such as the Mars Exploration Rovers, which use triple-junction gallium arsenide on
germanium cells.[78] High-brightness LEDs, used for automobile headlights and to backlight LCD screens,
are also an important application.[28]

Germanium-on-insulator (GeOI) substrates are seen as a potential replacement for silicon on miniaturized
chips.[28] CMOS circuit based on GeOI substrates has been reported recently.[79] Other uses in electronics
include phosphors in fluorescent lamps[33] and solid-state light-emitting diodes (LEDs).[28] Germanium
transistors are still used in some effects pedals by musicians who wish to reproduce the distinctive tonal
character of the "fuzz"-tone from the early rock and roll era, most notably the Dallas Arbiter Fuzz Face.[80]
Germanium has been studied as a potential material for implantable bioelectronic sensors that are resorbed
in the body without generating harmful hydrogen gas, replacing zinc oxide- and indium gallium zinc oxide-
based implementations.[81]

Other uses

Germanium dioxide is also used in catalysts for polymerization in the

production of polyethylene terephthalate (PET).[82] The high brilliance of
this polyester is especially favored for PET bottles marketed in Japan.[82] In
the United States, germanium is not used for polymerization catalysts.[28]

Due to the similarity between silica (SiO2 ) and germanium dioxide (GeO2 ),
the silica stationary phase in some gas chromatography columns can be
replaced by GeO2 .[83]

In recent years germanium has seen increasing use in precious metal alloys.
In sterling silver alloys, for instance, it reduces firescale, increases tarnish
resistance, and improves precipitation hardening. A tarnish-proof silver
alloy trademarked Argentium contains 1.2% germanium.[28]
A PET bottle
Semiconductor detectors made of single crystal high-purity germanium can
precisely identify radiation sources—for example in airport security.[84]
Germanium is useful for monochromators for beamlines used in single crystal neutron scattering and
synchrotron X-ray diffraction. The reflectivity has advantages over silicon in neutron and high energy X-
ray applications.[85] Crystals of high purity germanium are used in detectors for gamma spectroscopy and
the search for dark matter.[86] Germanium crystals are also used in X-ray spectrometers for the
determination of phosphorus, chlorine and sulfur.[87]

Germanium is emerging as an important material for spintronics and spin-based quantum computing
applications. In 2010, researchers demonstrated room temperature spin transport[88] and more recently
donor electron spins in germanium has been shown to have very long coherence times.[89]

Strategic importance
Due to its use in advanced electronics and optics, Germanium is considered a technology-critical element
(by e.g. the European Union), essential to fulfill the green and digital transition. As China controls 60% of
global Germanium production it holds a dominant position over the world's supply chains. On 3 July 2023
China suddenly imposed restrictions on the exports of germanium (and gallium), ratcheting up trade
tensions with Western allies. Invoking "national security interests," the Chinese Ministry of Commerce
informed that companies that intend to sell products containing germanium would need an export
licence.[90] It sees such products as "dual-use" items that may have military purposes and therefore warrant
an extra layer of oversight. The new dispute opened a new chapter in the increasingly fierce technology
race that has pitted the United States, and to a lesser extent Europe, against China. The US wants its allies
to heavily curb, or downright prohibit, advanced electronic components bound to the Chinese market in
order to prevent Beijing from securing global technology supremacy. China denied any tit-for-tat intention
behind the Germanium export restrictions.[91][92][93] Following China's export restrictions, Russian state-
owned company Rostec announced an increase in germanium production to meet domestic demand.[94]

Germanium and health

Germanium is not considered essential to the health of plants or animals.[95] Germanium in the environment
has little or no health impact. This is primarily because it usually occurs only as a trace element in ores and
carbonaceous materials, and the various industrial and electronic applications involve very small quantities
that are not likely to be ingested.[28] For similar reasons, end-use germanium has little impact on the
environment as a biohazard. Some reactive intermediate compounds of germanium are poisonous (see
precautions, below).[96]

Germanium supplements, made from both organic and inorganic germanium, have been marketed as an
alternative medicine capable of treating leukemia and lung cancer.[25] There is, however, no medical
evidence of benefit; some evidence suggests that such supplements are actively harmful.[95] U.S. Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) research has concluded that inorganic germanium, when used as a nutritional
supplement, "presents potential human health hazard".[49]

Some germanium compounds have been administered by alternative medical practitioners as non-FDA-
allowed injectable solutions. Soluble inorganic forms of germanium used at first, notably the citrate-lactate
salt, resulted in some cases of renal dysfunction, hepatic steatosis, and peripheral neuropathy in individuals
using them over a long term. Plasma and urine germanium concentrations in these individuals, several of
whom died, were several orders of magnitude greater than endogenous levels. A more recent organic form,
beta-carboxyethylgermanium sesquioxide (propagermanium), has not exhibited the same spectrum of toxic
effects.[97]

Certain compounds of germanium have low toxicity to mammals, but have toxic effects against certain
bacteria.[30]

Precautions for chemically reactive germanium compounds

While use of germanium itself does not require precautions, some of germanium's artificially produced
compounds are quite reactive and present an immediate hazard to human health on exposure. For example,
Germanium tetrachloride and germane (GeH4 ) are a liquid and gas, respectively, that can be very irritating
to the eyes, skin, lungs, and throat.[98]

See also
Germanene
Vitrain
History of the transistor

Notes
1. From Greek, argyrodite means silver-containing.[9]
2. Just as the existence of the new element had been predicted, the existence of the planet
Neptune had been predicted in about 1843 by the two mathematicians John Couch Adams
 and Urbain Le Verrier, using the calculation methods of celestial mechanics. They did this in
attempts to explain the fact that the planet Uranus, upon very close observation, appeared to
be being pulled slightly out of position in the sky.[12] James Challis started searching for it in
July 1846, and he sighted this planet on September 23, 1846.[13]
3. R. Hermann published claims in 1877 of his discovery of a new element beneath tantalum in
the periodic table, which he named neptunium, after the Greek god of the oceans and
seas.[14][15] However this metal was later recognized to be an alloy of the elements niobium
and tantalum.[16] The name "neptunium" was later given to the synthetic element one step
past uranium in the Periodic Table, which was discovered by nuclear physics researchers in
1940.[17]

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External links
Germanium (http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/032.htm) at The Periodic Table of Videos
(University of Nottingham)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Germanium&oldid=1189291610"